Local perceptions, experiences and responses to climate variability and change in the desertification hotspot of Boteti, Botswana

Understanding of local people’s perception on environmental conditions is crucial to design and implement appropriate adaptation strategies to climate change and variability. This study looked at communities’ perception of climate change impacts, barriers and effective adaptation strategies towards climate change in selected districts of western Oromia. This study examines smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate variability, climate change and its impacts on crop production, and adaptation strategies adopted over the past three 30 years. Survey data were collected from 204 respondents using both qualitative and quantitative approaches through purposive sampling techniques. Descriptive statistics such as percentage and frequency were used for data analysis. The results of the study showed that the respondents were perceived, the occurrence of climate change in terms of increase in temperatures, decrease in rainfall and change in timing of rain, change in the onset of rains, erratic rainfall pattern. The study also indicated that due to climate change induced factors the agricultural productivity was reduced from time to time. The results show that about 80%) of farmers who participated had observed recent changes in climate. Perceptions of local communities on climate change and variability are consistent with the analyzed historical climate data. The analyzed climate data show fluctuations in onset date, cessation date and length of growing season (LGS) and change in climate. Farmers perceived weather related problems such as low rain, drought, flood, heat, cold, strong wind that led increased farming problems such as soil erosion, loss of soil fertility; reduction in crop yields and high rate of disease occurrence. The impacts of climate change on crop production were revealed by changes in start of farming season; including: rainfall coming early or late, decrease in rainfall, increase in temperature and increase in farming problems, in particular, increase in soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and reduction in crop yields. The results showed that farmers perceived climate change in terms of changes in rainfall and temperature, increase in drought condition, crop pests and diseases. Those changes had significant impact on farmers’ households whose income depends on rain fed farming. The findings revealed that the impacts of climate in rural areas include reduced in crop yield (49%); increase in pest and disease (34%) and soil erosion (98%). Respondents perceived the main cause of climate change was human action through; intensified agriculture, deforestation, increased use of fossil fuel and use of chemical fertilizer on farms. Therefore, to adapt to the changing in climate, farming community practiced some adaptation measure. The adaptation measures identified were soil and water conservation, crop rotation, change crop varieties, change planting dates, late planting, diversification of crop types and varieties, drought resistant varieties, building water harvesting schemes and use of irrigation. Widely used adaptation measures are soil and water conservation, crop rotation, changing planting dates and change crop varieties in the study area. Besides, the finding identified some serious barriers of adaptation measure to climate change including lack of information, shortage of labor, lack of capital, black of access to water and poor potential for irrigation. Therefore, there is a need to focus community dimensions such as perceptions of smallholder farmers. The study recommends enhanced knowledge of climate change and climate smart agriculture practices for their improved adoption.

The present study was conducted in Ambassel district of Northern Ethiopia to understand adaptation strategies employed by rural farmers to the adverse effects of climate change and variability and factors that determine their adaptation decisions. The study was based on multistage sampling techniques to select the study villages and sampled households (HHs). Data were collected through HH survey, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The collected data were analysed by using descriptive statistics and multinomial logit (MNL) model. The results revealed that in response to the effects of climate variability and change, the adaptation strategies deployed by farmers included terracing as soil and water conservation strategy, changing planting date, fertiliser application, crop diversification with improved variety, income diversification and livestock diversification. The result from MNL analysis showed that age, family size, educational level, farm size, income, livestock holding, access to extension, distance to market, access to climate information and agroecological zones were amongst the factors that had a significant influence on farmers’ choice of adaptation strategies. The basic barriers to climate change adaptation were lack of finance, shortage of land, inadequate climate information, lack of skill and shortage of labour. Therefore, strengthening interventions that enhance income generating activities and access to climate information should be an integral part of climate change adaptation strategies. Moreover, providing early maturing and high-value crop varieties that are more suited to the local environment is also crucial.

Climate change and variability has direct and indirect effects on pastoralism through its effect on natural resources including water and pastures that support livestock production in pastoral areas. This study was conducted in Kajiado County where pastoralism is the main source of livelihood. The objective was to identify challenges facing pastoralism and adaptation measures applied by Maasai pastoralists to mitigate impacts of adverse climate events including flooding and drought. A cross-sectional study design was used and primary data collected through focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs) and expert opinion interviews (EOIs). A total of 10 FGDs (114 respondents within 10 wards, out of which 81 were men and 33 women), 25 KIIs (6 opinion leaders, 5 village elders, 6 chiefs, 6 government staff and 2 non-governmental organisation) and 12 EOIs (1 Department of Meteorological Services, 1 National Drought Management Authority (NDMA), 2 Department of Agriculture and 8 Departments of Veterinary Services and Livestock Production) were conducted during the data collection period. The findings showed that drought and flooding were the main climate related challenges that were often experienced by the pastoralists. The adaptation measure which were frequently implemented by pastoralist during flooding was livestock vaccination and mass treatment of sick livestock (Z >1.96) while the most frequently implemented adaptation measures during drought periods included migration with livestock to search for water and pasture (Z=1.51) and livestock vaccination and treatment of sick livestock (Z=1.08). Other climate variability related-challenges included increased incidences of livestock diseases, increased livestock deaths, increased cases of community conflicts, unavailability of veterinary vaccines and medicines, high cost of livestock vaccines and drugs and inadequate number of technical staff within the county. The study has shown that climate variability has significant impact on sources of livelihood for pastoralists who in turn are implementing several adaptation measures to mitigate the effects of climate change and variability. The study recommends formulation and implementation of appropriate plans and policies that are focussed on supporting resilience of the vulnerable pastoral communities and that could further assist in fighting the negative impacts of climate change and variability.

Mitigation and Adaptation Measures of Peri-Urban Farmers as a Response to Climate Change in Temeke District, Dar es Salaam Region. Samwel P. Lunyelele, Josiah Z. Katani and Kenneth M. K. Bengesi Abstract This paper assessed mitigation and adaptation measures used by peri-urban farmers of Temeke District against climate change. A cross sectional design was applied of which 240 households were randomly selected for the household surveys and focus group discussions. Qualitative data were analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics while content analysis was used for qualitative data analysis. The findings revealed a high level of adoption of both mitigation and adaptation measures. Kruskal Wallis Test results suggest statistically significant difference in the level of adoption of mitigation measures across three age groups at p<0.05. Nonetheless, there was no significant difference in the adoption of adaptation measures across three age groups at p>0.05. The implemented mitigation measures include cultivating cover crops, alternative energy sources, mixed farming and agroforestry. Adaptation measures comprised of drought resistant crops, economic diversification, irrigation, mixed farming, cover crops sequential cropping and intercropping. Conclusively, a high level of adoption of mitigation and adaptation measures indicates that they are inevitable. Some of adaptation measures were also used as mitigation measures indicating that they are complementary to each other. The study recommends on enhancement of existing mitigation and adaptation measures. More studies on determinants of mitigation and adaptation measures are also recommended. Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/jaes.v7n1a5

Ethiopia is also frequently identified as a country that is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. The potential adverse effects of climate change on Ethiopia’s agricultural sector are a major concern, particularly given the country’s dependence on agricultural production, which is sensitive to climate change and variability. This problem calls the need to understand agroecology based vulnerability to climate change and variability to better adapt to climate risks and promote strategies for local communities so as to enhance food security. The objective of this study is to estimate and compare the level of vulnerability of smallholder farmers’ to climate change and variability from three agroecology representing Muger River sub-Basin of the upper Blue Nile basin using Livelihood Vulnerability Index. The research used quantitative and qualitative data collected through Focussed Group Discussions, key informant interviews and a questionnaire survey of 442 sampled households across three different agro-ecologies in the sub-basin. The results reveal that along with the different agro-ecological zone, households and communities experienced different degrees of climate vulnerability. These differences are largely explained by differences in exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers. The livelihood vulnerability analysis reveals that Kolla agroecology exhibits relatively low adaptive capacity, higher sensitivity and higher exposure to climate change and variability that is deemed to be the most vulnerable agroecology. These contributing factors to a vulnerability in Kolla agroecology are largely influenced by assets, livelihood diversification, innovation, infrastructure, socio-demographic factors, social capital, agriculture, food security, and natural disasters and climate variability. The result furthermore shows that Dega agroecology has least vulnerable owing to its higher adaptive capacity. These results suggest that designing agroecology based resilience-building adaptation strategies is crucial to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change and variability.

The study evaluates the farmers' choices and adoption of adaptation measures and plans by smallholder farmers to reduce the effects of climate change on their farming activities. We conducted a systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method. We found 66 associated studies to understand farmers’ adaptation measures to climate change impacts in Africa. The paper summarizes four categories, including i) crop varieties and management; ii) water and soil management; iii) financial schemes, migration, and culture; and finally, iv) agriculture and weather services. The findings revealed that majority of studies identified crop diversification (51.5%), planting drought-tolerant varieties (45%), changing planting dates (42%), and planting early maturing crops (22%) as dominant strategies. These adaptation strategies are a welcome development and may be beneficial for responding to the impacts of climate change. However, they might not be effective during times of more extreme climate changes in the coming decades. Hence, more transformative changes, such as building more infrastructures for irrigation, promoting crop insurance, using improved varieties, and increasing opportunities for livelihood diversification, should be considered in addition to the existing adaptation strategies and potentially contributes towards SDG 1 (No Poverty) and 2 (Zero Hunger).

Agricultural policies in Kenya aim to improve farmers’ livelihoods. With projected climate change, these policies are short of mechanisms that promote farmers’ adaptation. As a result, smallholders are confronted with a variety of challenges including climate change, which hinders their agricultural production. Local knowledge can be instrumental in assisting smallholders to cope with climate change and variability. In this paper, we present empirical evidence that demonstrates local knowledge, perceptions and adaptations to climate change and variability amongst smallholders of Laikipia district of Kenya. A Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) calculated for one station is compared with smallholders’ perceptions. Data was collected using qualitative and quantitative methods in Umande and Muhonia sub-locations. Qualitative data included 46 transcripts from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Quantitative data is derived from 206 interviewees. We analyzed qualitative and quantitative data using Atlas-ti and SPSS respectively. According to smallholders’ perceptions, climatic variability is increasingly changing. Local perceptions include decreasing rainfalls, increasing temperatures, increasing frosts and increasing hunger. The PDSI shows a trend towards severe droughts in the last four decades, which is in accordance with farmers’ perceptions. Smallholders use a combination of coping and adaptation strategies to respond to variability, including, among others, diversification of crop varieties, migration and sale of livestock. Significant relationships exist between drought perceptions and some adaptations such as migration and sale of livestock. Farmers have an in-depth knowledge of climatic variability, which they use to inform their coping and adaptation strategies. Knowledge of climatic perceptions and adaptations are vital entry points for decision makers and policy makers to learn how and where to enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholders in rainy and drought periods.

Climate change is one of the multiple challenges facing all categories of farmers globally. However, African farmers are the most sensitive in respect of climate variability and change. Climate change impacted negatively on crop production and the livelihoods of the local farmers. In black township South Africa, agricultural activities are highly dominated by small-scale farmers, whose farming system is highly vulnerable to changes in climate. This paper presents the analysis of how small-scale farmers employed adaptation strategies in response to climate change and determinants of small-scale households’ choices of coping and adaptation approach to climate variability and change in Vhembe District, South Africa. Multi nominal logit model was used on a surveyed of 224 local farmers. Farmers’ socio-economic attributes, was used in response to climate changes and further, households have adaptation strategies both on-farm and off-farm approach. Such approaches were; drought-tolerant seeds, shorter cycle crops, diversification of crops, changing planting dates, small-scale irrigation, migrating to urban areas and involvement in petty business. The results of the findings reveals that the significant drivers affecting choice of adaptation approach include climate information, gender, farm size, education level, farmer experience, decreasing rainfall and increases in temperature as farmers’ determinant choices of adaptation to climate change. While, on the other hand, off-farm resources, headed households and age had no significant impact on the choice of coping and adaptation approach to climate change. Therefore, policy makers in the local municipality should play a significant role by enhancing adaptation strategies appropriate for particular climatic shock on the study area.

Climate variability and change pose greater challenge not only to human life but to the environment at large. This study sought to evaluate the significance of institutional factors in climate variability adaptation of smallholder Irish potato farmers in Rubanda District, South Western Uganda with the objective of assessing the adaptation measures adopted by smallholder Irish potato farmers, determining the institutional factors that influence adoption of climate variability adaptation measures; and evaluating the institutional challenges that affect the adapting Irish potato farmers. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken to collect data from 197 systematically sampled smallholder farmers from two purposively selected sub counties (Muko and Bubaare) in Rubanda District, using structured questionnaires; whilst key informant interviews were used to elicit data from purposively selected personnel from the local government as well as private and civil society organizations. Multiple linear regression was used to determine the relative influence of selected variables on adaptation measures against climate variability. Results indicate that smallholder Irish potato farmers are adapting to climate variability through agronomic measures such as terracing, mulching, contour ploughing, changing planting dates, early planting, crop-rotation, and technology related measures such as rain water harvesting technologies, adaptive varieties and fertilizers among others. Results from multiple linear regression analysis show that several institutional factors are influencing adoption of climate variability adaptive measures with the most significant ones being access to agricultural extension services, cultivated area and size of land owned. Despite the interventions undertaken, adaptation to climate variability is constrained by the limited access to financial/credit resources and inadequate technical capacity as well as limited access to information and irregularity of extension services. The study recommends that public and private institutions and personnel, both technical and political, at the various levels of local government, work together to improve extension services, communication as well as enhancing access to credit facilities among smallholder farmers, who will also need to further strengthen existing social groups to enhance their bargaining power.

Climate change is causing significant suffering for rural farmers in Ethiopia, especially those in the Jemma sub-basin, whose livelihoods rely on rain-fed agriculture. The primary aim of this study is to identify key adaptation options and the factors that influence smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt these strategies in response to climate change and variability in the Jemma Sub-Basin. A total of 366 households were randomly selected using a probability proportional to size sampling technique from highland, midland, and lowland kebeles. Semi-structured questionnaires were utilized to gather both quantitative and qualitative data through household surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Hence, descriptive statistics and the multinominal logit model were employed to analyze the demographic characteristics and factors influencing farmers’ adaptation choices. The findings revealed that adjusting planting dates, improved seeds, soil and water conservation, irrigation, livelihood strategies, and crop diversification are the most prevalent adaptation options practiced by smallholder farmers in the study area. Adjusting planting dates and soil and water conservation are positively and significantly correlated with lowland agroecology and access to information. Additionally, livelihood strategies and crop diversification are positively affected by socioeconomic factors such as gender, family size, total annual income, access to credit, and access to information. The results further indicated that the adoption of irrigation is significantly and positively influenced by gender, age, access to credit, access to information, and market access. In contrast, improved seeds, soil, and water conservation, as well as diversification of livelihoods, showed negative and significant correlations with age and landholdings. Ultimately, the results suggest that effective policies should promote the establishment of efficient microfinance institutions, enhance farmer awareness, and improve infrastructure. Furthermore, the findings advocate for the promotion and expansion of agroecological and gender-based research to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of farmers’ adaptation options.

Climate change and variability pose a major challenge facing the agricultural sector around the world and trends are feared to intensify by 2050. This is likely to complicate agricultural decisions affecting local communities who depend on the sector for their livelihood. Seasonal changes in weather patterns are projected to reduce food production due to the reduction in average yields of common food crops. With the majority of smallholder farmers in Uganda depending on agriculture for survival, building their adaptive capacity to climate change is vital to ensure household food and income security. This study aimed at establishing the smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change and their initiatives to cope with and manage the associated risks. A sample of 126 farming households were randomly selected from three Sub counties in Isingiro District and studied using field observations and questionnaires. Key informant interviews were also conducted with three extension workers. The collected data was analysed using Stata 14 and Excel. The findings revealed that there was increasing awareness of the climate change and variability challenge among smallholder farmers with the increasing need to take on adaptation strategies. The results showed that the major perceived changes were, increased intensity and frequency of droughts (98%), increase in daytime temperatures (92.7%), decrease in rainfall intensity (92.1%) and changes in rainfall distribution patterns (90%). It also showed that different initiatives had been taken by farmers to cope with the changes like changing planting dates (92.1%), growing crop variety mixtures (73.8%) and practising soil and water conservation (62.7%). Based on the findings of this study, smallholder farmers greatly perceived climate change and variability with negative impacts imposed on their farming operations. Although farmers have tried to adapt, there is still a need to support their coping strategies through appropriate policies. This will facilitate increased adoption of adaptation measures, thereby reducing the negative consequences of climate change in future

The study ascertained the innovative adaptive measures used by farmers in northern Nigeria to cushion the harmful effects of climate change. Quantitative and qualitative approaches (Rapid Rural Appraisal, focus group discussions, and semi – structured interview schedule) were used to elicit information from a total of 500 farmers, which were selected using multistage random sampling technique. Findings revealed that 84% and 79% of the farmers were aware and knowledgeable of climate change issues, respectively, while 81% of them noted that they had at various times experienced climate change incidences. Farmers reported that factors which informed their perception of climate change incidence were: unusual early rains followed by weeks of dryness (M= 2.84), erratic rainfall pattern (M= 2.66), drought (M=2.68), reduction in farm yields (M=2.68) and high rate of disease incidence (M= 2.67). Adaptive measures used by the farmers in northern Nigeria included: changes in planting dates (88.4%) and harvesting dates (85.4%), multiple cropping (81.8%), intensive manure application (69.2%), shift to different sites (56.8%) and use of wetland/river valley (fadama) for farming (52.6%). The study concludes that there is need for government to make concrete efforts to enact appropriate policies on climate change adaptation and assist local farmers in the short and long term to improve their resilience to climate change impact.

Smallholder farmers are facing several climate-related challenges. Projected changes in climate are expected to aggravate the existing challenges. This study was conducted in Chiredzi district, Masvingo, Zimbabwe. The study objective was to examine farmer perceptions on climate variability, current adaptive strategies and establish factors influencing smallholder farmers’ adaptation to climate change. A survey was conducted with 100 randomly selected respondents from four wards. Additionally, data was collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The results showed that farmers perceived that there has been a decrease in annual rainfall and an increase in average temperatures. A linear trend analysis of rainfall and temperature data from 1980 to 2011 corroborated the farmers’ perceptions. Farmers’ adaptation options included adjusting planting dates and crop diversification. Off-farm income has reduced the dependence of the farmers on agriculture. A multinomial regression analysis showed that socioeconomic factors such as gender, age, number of cattle owned, land size and average crop yields influenced farmer adaptation strategies. The study concludes that although farmers are diverse in their socio-economic attributes, they exhibit homogeneous perceptions on changes in climate, which are consistent with observations of empirical climate data. These perceptions help to shape smallholder farmer coping and adaptation strategies.

The study was undertaken in Kongelai Ward, West Pokot County, because of its vulnerability to changing and erratic rainfall pattern which has adversely affected pastoralism. The research focused on better understanding of climate change and variability on two climatic factors, rainfall and temperature, in order to provide insights on pastoralists’ risk management adaptations at a micro-level. In addition, it investigated the use of Indigenous Knowledge. Pearson chi square test was performed to test the hypothesis on whether there is an association between climate variability and change, and coping and adaptation strategies utilized by the Pokot community. Both primary and secondary data was used. Household questionnaire survey, focus group discussion and key informants interviews were used to collect primary data at household and community levels. Primary data (through questionnaires) was collected from a sample survey of 98 households taken from 5,596 households. multi-stage sampling technique was used, and information obtained was analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics. Results indicated that, 94% of the farmers use Indigenous knowledge. Coping strategies include: Selling livestock (90%), relief food supply (90%), cash/food-for-work (71%), Slaughter of old and weak livestock (58%), consumption of wild fruits (33%), consumption of bush products, (50%), off-farm employment (30%), and minimization of food for consumption (84%). Diversification of livelihood (92%), Livestock mobility (94%), sending children to school (56%), Strategic livestock feed (35%), Develop water sources (15%),Change in diet consumption (78%),Livestock off-take (25%),Storage of pasture (35%), were identified as some of the most commonly used adaptation strategies. Recommendations include; better planning and target interventions, Awareness creation on environment, alternative income source, support pastoralists adaptation and coping strategies, enhancement of extension services, documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge, and enhance pastoralists’ resilience to drought and heat stressesÂ

Options for Managing Climate Risk and Climate Change Adaptation in Smallholder Farming Systems of the Limpopo Province, South Africa