Living through a pandemic: researching families on a low income in Scotland – findings and research reflections

Gender Differences in the Annual Income of Psychiatrists

Female physicians have traditionally earned less than their male counterparts, even after adjustment for specialty, workload, and physician characteristics. In the 1980s female psychiatrists earned incomes that were 13% lower than those of their male counterparts; however, important explanatory variables for such differences were not incorporated into that analysis. This study examined whether a gender income gap among psychiatrists persisted in the 1990s. Survey responses were used that were obtained between 1992 and 2001 from 976 actively practicing white psychiatrists (weighted N=941). Because of low numbers of black respondents to the surveys, we were unable to examine the influence of race on psychiatrists' incomes. Linear regression modeling was performed to determine the association between gender and annual incomes after controlling for workload, provider characteristics, and practice characteristics. Among white psychiatrists, women reported working 13% fewer annual hours than their male counterparts, and women had practiced medicine for fewer years than men. Also, women were more likely to be employees of the practice, as opposed to having an ownership interest in the practice, and were more likely to be board certified, although these findings were not significant. After adjustment for workload, provider characteristics, and practice characteristics, the mean annual income for women was $140,615, or $31,962 (19%) lower than that of men (95% confidence interval of $41,834-$22,090 lower, p<.001). During the 1990s female gender was associated with lower annual incomes among white psychiatrists; compared with previous reports from earlier periods the income disparity appears to be widening. These findings warrant further exploration.

We have previously shown that an educational program was not effective in increasing bicycle helmet use in children of low-income families. The objective of this study was to evaluate a combined educational and helmet subsidy program in the same population, while controlling for secular trends. The secondary objective was to complete a third year of surveying children's bicycle helmet use throughout the study community. A prospective, controlled, before-and-after study. Bicycling children 5 to 14 years of age from areas of low average family income. A defined geographic community within a large urban Canadian city. In April 1992, students in three schools located in the area of lowest average family income were offered $10 helmets and an educational program; three other low-income areas served as control areas. Helmet use was determined by direct observation of more than 1800 bicycling children. Nine hundred ten helmets were sold to a school population of 1415 (64%). Reported helmet ownership increased from 10% to 47%. However, observed helmet use in the low-income intervention area was no different from the rate in the three low-income control areas (18% versus 19%). There was no difference in the trend in helmet use during the period of 1990 through 1992 in the intervention area (4% to 18%) compared with the control areas (3% to 19%). Helmet use rates from all income areas have increased from 3.4% in 1990, to 16% in 1991, to 28% in 1992. In 1992, helmet use in the high-income areas was 48% and in the low-income areas was 20%. There has been a trend toward increasing helmet use in all income areas during the 3-year period. Despite encouraging helmet sales and increases in reported helmet ownership, the results of the observational study do not support the efficacy of a helmet subsidy program in increasing helmet use in children residing in areas of low average family income. Strategies to increase helmet use in children of low average family income remain a priority.

Introduction: Chronic liver disease (CLD) is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Understanding health disparities can inform appropriate interventions. We aimed to study mortality outcomes of those with CLD by the income level (income-to-poverty ratio <5 as lower income and ≥5 as higher income). Methods: In this retrospective cohort study, we analyzed data of adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2018. CLD included viral hepatitis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD). Results: We analyzed 59,204 adults: 47,224 without CLD and 11,980 with CLD. The CLD group was older, more likely male, racial/ethnic minority groups or foreign-born, and had lower educational and income levels (p < 0.001). Most (80.02%) CLD participants did not have college degrees and had lower income (79.18%). Among CLD participants, similar differences were observed between lower and higher income groups. Lower income participants with CLD had significantly higher 10-year cumulative mortality compared to higher income CLD participants (15.26 vs. 8.00%, p < 0.001), with consistent findings in viral hepatitis and NAFLD subgroups (p < 0.001) but not ALD (p = 0.71). Adjusting for age, sex, race, birthplace, lower income CLD participants were 2.01 (hazard ratio [HR]: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.79–2.26) times more likely to die overall and in viral hepatitis (HR: 2.05; 95% CI: 1.31–3.24) and NAFLD subgroups (HR: 2.32; 95% CI: 1.69–3.18) but not ALD (HR: 1.17; 95% CI: 0.55–2.51). Conclusion: Lower income, foreign-born, and racial/ethnic minority groups were disproportionately represented among those with CLD, with lower income and CLD individuals having double the mortality risk compared to their higher income counterparts. Interventions should be culturally appropriate and address socioeconomic barriers.

Nutrition: a quintessential sustainable development goal

The increasing rate of poverty and unemployment in Nigeria has necessitated further efforts towards alternative means of reducing the trend, outside the government’s microeconomic mechanisms. As a sector with multiplier effects on other sectors of economy through its numerous activities, the construction sector is expected to reduce both poverty and unemployment. This study, therefore, examined the relationships between construction sector variables, poverty and unemployment rates in Nigeria. Using socio-economic data published by the Central Bank of Nigeria, National Bureau of Statistics, United Nations Development Program and World Bank from 1981-2019, the study deployed an Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach to analyze the relationships between construction sector variables, poverty, and unemployment rates. It also used Granger causality test to determine the direction of causation between the variables under investigation. The results showed that there are both long-run and short-run dynamic relationships between poverty rate and construction sector variables (F-stat. (3.93) &gt; upper (3.67) and lower (2.79)) bounds. It showed that no long-run balanced relationship exists between the unemployment rate and construction sector variables (F-stat. (2.01) &lt; lower (2.79) and upper (3.67)) bounds. The result further revealed that there are significant and positive linear correlations between construction sector variables, poverty, and unemployment rates; except between construction output and poverty rate, where an insignificant linear relation was established. Nevertheless, the relationships could not result to direct causal effect, except a unidirectional Granger causal relationship that flows from government capital expenditure to construction service recurrent expenditure and construction output, and from construction service recurrent expenditure to construction output. Consequently, the study suggested that construction sector expenditure and output should be directed towards poverty and unemployment reduction. This could be done through the diversification and integration of all construction sub-sectors, particularly the private sector into the nation’s economic equation. Thus, this study would direct the paths of policy makers and construction planners towards the right construction policies and plans that would lead to reduction in unemployment and poverty rates with a long-term economic transformation in Nigeria.

Unpacking the parallel effects of parental alcohol misuse and low income on risk of supervisory neglect

From 2005 to 2017, the prevalence of mortality in Vietnamese children under five years old showed large regional disparities. In 2017, mortality in the wealthiest region was 12.6‰, whereas the most disadvantaged region it was three times as high, at 36‰. This study aims to identify factors affecting regional disparities of the under-five mortality rate (U5MR) in Vietnam. We applied Structural Equation Modelling to estimate the degree and the pathway through which undernutrition and socio-economic status (SES) contributed to the under-five mortality disparities. SES is estimated as a common latent factor of three socio-economic measures, that is, education, poverty and income. The direct effect of SES on U5MR is at 2.16 through the underweight pathway, which is 5 times higher than the effect of underweight on U5MR. Through the stunting channel, this direct impact is 1.43, nearly twice as high as the impact of the stunting rate. SES also has an indirect effect on U5MR through these undernutrition pathways. In total, we estimate that an increase in SES index will make the U5MR increase by 2.73‰. Among the three indicators of SES, poverty conveys the strongest signal of a considerable change in SES, thus to a subsequent change in U5MR. Among two types of undernutrition, the effect of stunting on U5MR is dominant, more than 3 times as high as that of underweight. These findings have important implications for socio-economic and health interventions: those that strongly focus on the reduction of regional poverty and stunting rates would be effective in bridging the regional gap in the U5MR in Vietnam.

The objective of this cross-sectional study is to examine structural forms of child abuse and child rights violations that restrict access to education, health, identity, and protection across countries/economies classified by income level according to the World Bank. Country-level quantitative data from the open databases of the World Bank and UNICEF were used. Countries were categorized in four groups by the World Bank’s income classification. Indicators related to legal identity, education, health, social protection and labour were selected based on their conceptual relevance and global availability. Data from 2014-2023 were aggregated for 216 countries/economies and analyzed using descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify disparities across income groups. The findings reveal stark inequalities in child rights and well-being outcomes, with children in low and lower-middle income countries/economies facing significant disadvantages. Birth registration was nearly universal in high income countries/economies but averaged only 52.5% in low income settings. Similarly, primary school enrolment and completion rates, as well as immunization coverage for measles, were substantially lower in low income countries/economies, reflecting systemic barriers beyond economic factors. The adolescent fertility rate in low income countries/economies was almost six times that of high income countries/economies. Infant mortality and under-five mortality rates were more than eight and eleven times higher, respectively, in low income countries/ economies compared to high income counterparts, underscoring profound survival inequities. Child labour and violent discipline were significantly more prevalent in low and lower-middle income groups; however, violent discipline persisted even in high income contexts, suggesting the influence of cultural and systemic norms. In conclusion, income inequality is a structural determinant of child rights violations and perpetuates structural child abuse. Access to basic rights such as education, identity, healthy living and protection from abuse are severely violated in low income countries/economies. Policy makers and international support mechanisms must frame these disparities not only as neglect but also as institutionalized abuse, and develop child rights-based policies by taking income inequality into account.

The paper titled “Urban Poverty in India: The Missing Linkage” points out poverty as a curse to the human society at large. It is stated that urban poverty in India is the consequence of rural migration. The paper broadly looked into the linkage between rural and urban spaces and population as the cause of poverty in urban centres. It is found that one of the reasons people have been migrating to urban areas is because of the failure of rural programmes. The inherent cause of poverty in India is hidden in its social structure itself and traced back to the Vedic age, caste system being the means of perpetuating it. Mughals and Britishers also have contributed towards this. Along with that, Indian agriculture is heavily dependent upon the monsoon which further causes poverty in rural areas. After historically tracing the cause of poverty, the paper examines the relationships between urban and rural poverty in India. It is observed that opportunities or lack of it in the countryside contributes towards increasing urban poverty. Dealing with urbanisation and urban poverty, it is found that the rate of urbanisation in India (28%) is less than many Asian countries. The paper broadly discusses the rural–urban migration which is happening because of less opportunity in rural areas. The structural shift in India has made the urban centres more attractive. The lower quality and quantity of the human capital increases the chances of poor migrants entering into the informal sector. It is also observed that perpetuation of poverty is carried across generations. In conclusion, it is observed that one of the dominant reasons for urban poverty is deep rooted in the prevalence of poverty in rural areas. The rural–urban poverty relationship is stronger and reinforcing in nature. It is suggested that development should not be only urban centric; an improvement in quality of life in both areas is necessary.

Background Sapovirus (SV) infection is a public health concern which plays an important role in the burden of diarrhoeal diseases, causing acute gastroenteritis in people of all ages in both outbreaks and sporadic cases worldwide. Objective/Study Design The purpose of this report is to summarise the available data on the detection of human SV in low and middle income countries. A systematic search on PubMed and ScienceDirect database for SV studies published between 2004 and 2017 in low and middle income countries was done. Studies of SV in stool and water samples were part of the inclusion criteria. Results From 19 low and middle income countries, 45 published studies were identified. The prevalence rate for SV was 6.5%. A significant difference (P=0) in SV prevalent rate was observed between low income and middle income countries. Thirty-three (78.6%) of the studies reported on children and 8 (19%) studies reported on all age groups with diarrhoea. The majority (66.7%) of studies reported on hospitalised patients with acute gastroenteritis. Sapovirus GI was shown as the dominant genogroup, followed by SV-GII. Conclusion The detection of human SV in low and middle income countries is evident; however the reports on its prevalence are limited. There is therefore a need for systematic surveillance of the circulation of SV, and their role in diarrhoeal disease and outbreaks, especially in low and middle income countries.

Individuals from socioeconomically disadvantaged groups have lesser participation and success in the National Diabetes Prevention Program (NDPP). Barriers to NDPP participation and lifestyle change were examined from the perspective of Lifestyle Coaches serving lower versus higher income participants. Lifestyle Coaches (n = 211) who serve lower income (n = 82) or higher income (n = 129) participants reported on observed barriers to NDPP participation and lifestyle change and ranked the three most significant barriers to (a) NDPP participation and (b) lifestyle change. Group differences in number/type of barriers were examined using t-tests and chi-square analyses, and ranking differences were examined using multilevel cumulative logit models. Lifestyle Coaches of lower income (versus higher income) participants reported two additional barriers on average. Ranked barriers to participation were similar between groups, and notably included physical/emotional barriers. However, for lifestyle change, those serving lower income groups were more likely to rank lack of access to healthy grocery stores, but less likely to rank low motivation and lack of family support. Lifestyle Coaches of lower income participants were less likely to rank long wait period prior to enrollment as the most significant barrier to participation, and to rank lack of time off from work as the most significant barrier to lifestyle change. Despite more barriers observed among lower versus higher income participants, overlap in the most significant barriers highlights the potential utility of widely addressing common barriers among NDPP participants. In particular, physical and emotional barriers have been overlooked, yet deserve greater attention in future research and practice.

Energy-efficient technology retrofit investment behaviors of Midwest households in lower and higher income regions

The study aims to measure and analyze the determinants of poverty in developing countries during the period 1990-2020, using appropriate standard models to analyze panel data. The model includes several macroeconomic variables, namely public spending, economic growth rate, unemployment rate, inflation rate, and population growth rate. The study assumes an inverse relationship, with statistical significance, between the poverty rate and each public spending and economic growth rate. In contrast, a direct relationship is assumed between poverty and inflation, unemployment, and population growth rates. The study adopts a deductive approach based on the descriptive analytical method, drawing on economic theories and previous studies on the theoretical side. On the applied side, a quantitative method is employed, focusing on economic measurement. The findings reveal an inverse and significant relationship between the poverty rate and public spending, while the relationship is insignificant in the case of the economic growth rate. Furthermore, a direct and significant relationship is observed between poverty, inflation, and unemployment rates. Lastly, an inverse and significant relationship is identified between poverty and population growth rates. In conclusion, the study provides a set of recommendations, the most important of which is to increase public spending to support the poor through the provision of social services such as education, health, and potable water. This is recognized as one of the most influential factors in poverty reduction, along with supporting small. projects and creating a favoraeble economic environment to attract labour and reduce unemployment rates, ultimately leading to a decrease in poverty rates.

This study is entitled the effect of poverty, unemployment and zakat levels on the Islamic- Human Development Index in Jambi Province through economic growth as an intervening variable. The purpose of this study is 1) to analyze the effect of poverty, unemployment and zakat rates on economic growth in Jambi Province. 2) to analyze the effect of economic growth on the Islamic-Human Development Index in Jambi Province. 3) to analyze the effect of poverty, unemployment and zakat levels on the Islamic-Human Development Index through economic growth in Jambi Province. The research method used is a quantitative descriptive analysis method with secondary data. The analytical tools used by the SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) method , using AMOS 26, use the stages of modeling and structural equation analysis into 7 steps, namely: 1. Theoretical model development; 2. Drawing up a path diagram; 3. Convert path diagrams into structural equations; 4. Choose input matrix for data analysis; 5. Assess model identification; 6. Assess Goodness-of-Fit criteria; 7. Interpretation of model estimation The results showed that the factors that directly affect economic growth in Jambi Province are the poverty rate and national zakat index, while the open unemployment rate does not affect economic growth in Jambi Province. The national zakat index directly has a significant effect on I-HDI in Jambi Province, however, the poverty rate and open unemployment rate directly do not have a significant effect on I- HDI in Jambi Province. Economic growth directly affects I-HDI in Jambi Province. Factors that indirectly influence I-HDI in Jambi Province through economic growth as an intervening variable are the national zakat index, open unemployment rate, and poverty rate against I-HDI in Jambi Province