Élite Families and gentes in the Biedano Region. The 7th to the 2nd Centuries BC

The earliest evidence of synagogue institutions consists of two inscriptions and one papyrus text from mid- to late 3rd-century bce Egypt mentioning the term proseuchē, one of seventeen Greek, Latin, and Hebrew terms used in antiquity that are translated into English as “synagogue.” (It should be noted, however, that some scholars would argue that the term proseuchē—at this time—referred to Jewish temple institutions rather than synagogues.) In the 2nd and 1st century bce, we find an increase in the number of inscriptions and papyri referring to synagogues as well as a greater geographic spread of the remains of synagogues. During this time we also find the first mention of these institutions in literary texts. The earliest architectural remains identified by a majority of scholars as synagogue buildings date from the 2nd or 1st century bce. By the 1st century ce, in addition to the continued and increasing presence of architectural and inscriptional evidence, we find frequent mention of synagogues in literary texts, both Jewish and non-Jewish: Philo, Josephus, the New Testament, and Greco-Roman texts. Geographically, evidence from this time period come from most parts of the Mediterranean world, making a circle with Italy in the west, Hungary and the northern shores of the Black Sea in the north, Syria in the east, and Egypt and Libya in the south. Intriguingly, there are few archaeological remains dating from the 2nd century in the land of Israel (only one edifice, if we follow the dating proposed by the excavators). From the 3rd century onward, and particularly in the 4th and 5th centuries, there is a dramatic increase in synagogue construction. In addition, most of these late antique buildings are, in contrast to earlier synagogues, richly decorated.

Zeytinli Island, which is connected to Balıkesir province Erdek county, is one of the important archaeological excavation sites in our country. The anthropological evaluations of human skeletons obtained from Zeytinli island excavations gave important information about age and gender especially when the skull was taken into account and especially the use of radiological examinations increased the reliability of this information. In particular, theuse of radiological examination sincreas esther reliability of this information. Our study was carried out between 2007 and 2011 by taking the skulls of a total of 22 individuals, 6 females and 16 males between the 2nd century BC and the 12th century AD, uncovered as a result of the excavations performed in Zeytinli Island. The image staken by multislice computed tomography were transformedin to three-dimensional form with workstation software, and their interorbital, biorbital and bizygomatic measurements were performed. The skull measurement values were presented as median (range) with a whisker graphic. The median female and male values were comparedusing the Mann-Whitney test. The Pearson correlation test was used to examine the correlations between the measurement values. The fact that the p-value was below 0.05 was considered significant. Upon evaluating the data, the difference between the male and female interorbital and bizygomatic distances was not found significant (p>0,05). When the biorbital distances were taken into account, the biorbital distances of male skulls were found to be significantly higher compared to those of female skulls (p<0,05) . No significant relationship was found when the analyses of the correlation between interorbital and biorbitaland bizygomatic distances were examined. In our study, the bizigotic distances in the skulls belonging to male individuals are longer than the skulls of female individuals. This shows that the lateral protrusions of the male's skull are more prominent. This is an important criterion for gender discrimination.

In 1942, following readjustment works of the road connecting the Saveni and Avrameni communes, a barrow was destroyed, resulting the find of a bronze cauldron. A. Nițu deemed the vessel of Avrameni as part of the series of cauldrons coinciding with the civilisation and expansion of the Sarmatians by the Don and Lower and Mid Danube in the 1st – 4th century AD and dated it to this chronological span. Gh. Bichir argued that the Avrameni cauldron is somewhat later than that of Piatra Șoimului (Calu), which the scholar dated to the 1st century BC. The vessel’s shape resembles that of a “bell” cast together with its handles, while the biconical foot was made separately, the two parts being attached by a bronze cast-made plug. On the body, the vessel displays several repair traces. According to its features and specificities, the Avrameni cauldron belongs to type Demidenko II.1.B, being the single of the type in the area between the Don and the Carpathians. The remaining resembling specimens come from 2nd – 1st century BC complexes from territories left of the Lower Don and the Kuban region. The author believes that according to its shape, the curved vertical handles decorated each with a knob as well as its making manner and foot attachment, the Avrameni vessel is an artefact joining elements specific to the Sauromatian cauldrons used in the Volga and Lower Don area, but also in the Kuban region also in the 2nd – 1st century BC. Within the context of its analysis are also discussed the cauldrons of Bubueci and Velikoploskoe, both from “ritual hoards/deposits” part of a larger group of such features of the 3rd – 1st century BC from territories comprised between the Volga – the pre-mountain area from North Caucasus in the east and the Lower Danube - Prut to the west. The cauldron of Bubueci belongs to type Demidenko I.3.A. It has a body cast together with the handles, while the iconical foot, surviving fragmentarily, was cast separately. Similarly to the Avrameni vessel, that of Bubueci is the most western find of a cauldron of the type. The body shape, curved vertical handles decorated each with three knobs, the lip shape and its making manner, how the handles start from the cauldron rim as well as how they were made, indicate that the vessel combines elements specific to the Sauromatian and early Sarmatian cauldrons. In the case of the Avrameni and Bubueci cauldrons, as well as those similar, the author concludes they are either a continuation of ancient casting traditions or were produced sometime earlier, yet continued to be used for a good period of time after their production cease. The exhibited repair traces and presence far from their territories of origin, where they were made and used, as well as their find together with 2nd – 1st century BC artefacts confirm, according to the author, their use for a longer time span. In the case of the Avrameni vessel, its deposition might have occurred sometime during the 2nd century BC as well as between the end of the 2nd – first decades of the 1st century BC. With respect to the dating of the “ritual hoard/deposit” of Bubueci, the author believes it dates no earlier than the 2nd century BC, and that its framing sometime between mid 2nd century BC and early 1st century BC is very likely. In the case of the Velikoploskoe cauldron, its body shape and sizes resemble those of the Demidenko VI type cauldrons emerging in the 2nd century BC, yet the remaining elements specific to this vessel type are missing. The rudimentary attachment procedure of the foot to the body, rim shape, its making manner, as well as how the handles start from the vessel rim, are according to the author, specific to the Sauromatae and early Sarmatian cauldrons (types Demidenko I-III, V) used in the first centuries BC, which hinders its ascribing to a certain type. Therefore, it was concluded that the Velikoploskoe vessel seems to be intermediary between the 5th - 3rd century BC cauldrons, mainly Sauromatae, and those of the early and mid armatian periods between the 2nd century BC and mid 2nd century AD. Its elements and making manner allow, according to the author, for its dating to the 2nd – 1st century BC, likely only sometime during the 2nd century BC, which is not contradicted by the remaining artefacts in the find.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the analysis of objects discovered during the excavation of the “Kamennaya mogila” (Stone Grave) kurgan on Medovaya mountain (southern outskirts of Zheleznovodsk). Methods and materials. The comparative typological method was used as a worker. It is based on classification by material, processing method, shape, ornamentation, as well as on the study of types of gold jewelry, glass and black-glazed dishes, bronze horse plate foreheads and cheek pads, etc. Analysis. The typological and chronological analysis was carried out on gold jewelry (plaques, rings, pendants), antique ceramic and glassware, items of horse dress and weapons. Analogies to imported items from the crypt, found in the monuments of ancient culture and in the burials of the barbarian nobility, allow them to be dated to the 4th – 2nd centuries BC. Items of equestrian dress and weapons date back to the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC. Results. The author, regarding the social structure of the local population, ranked the monument as stratum No. 2 (nobility of the first level). A complex burial structure of the tomb with a significant number of ritual offerings is recorded. Burial items have numerous analogies in the status burials of the Bosporan, Meotian and Scythian nobility of the Northern Black Sea region and the North Caucasus of the 4 th – 2nd centuries BC. The sophisticated frame structure of the horse harness made of iron parts from the crypt of the Stone Grave is unique. Only a member of the nobility with a very high status could afford such a special bridle as a ritual offering.

The Topography of Ancient Jerusalem. 2nd Century BC - 2nd Century AD

En dépit de sa simplicité apparente, le fromage était associé à Rome à des enjeux symboliques forts. Son processus de fabrication en faisait une métaphore du processus de civilisation, malgré son lien avec le monde des bergers, et servait de modèle pour comprendre la formation et l’évolution du fœtus dans le ventre maternel. À l’évidence, c’était un aliment consommé quotidiennement par le peuple à la campagne comme à la ville, lors des repas de la journée (jentaculum, prandium) ou à n’importe quel moment. Mais si son utilisation dans les recettes de la « haute cuisine » était marginale, il figurait toujours dans les repas du soir (cena) ou les banquets aristocratiques, dans l’un ou plusieurs des trois services. La texture moelleuse du fromage frais et le goût salé du fromage sec plaisaient aux Romains, de même que la modulation de sa saveur par parfumage ou salage était fidèle au principe « illusionniste » de la « haute cuisine ». L’existence d’une liste des meilleurs fromages de l’Empire atteste que certains d’entre eux étaient impliqués dans une logique de classification et de hiérarchisation, typique de la démarche gastronomique.

P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (236/5-183 BC) is best known for his extensive role in Roman expansion throughout the Mediterranean in the late 3rd and early 2nd Centuries BC. His contribution to the Second Punic War, most famously his defeat of Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202, and to the Roman-Seleucid War with Antiochus III has naturally resulted in ancient and modern fascination with his military campaigns, strategies, and achievements. Similarly, the development of the ‘Scipionic Legend’ and his reception within Greek and Latin literary traditions has received comprehensive analysis. Yet questions remain to be asked about Scipio’s image and identity, and how they were promoted and received by both Scipio and contemporary audiences in Rome and the Hellenistic world. Existing treatments of his career, such as those of Liddell-Hart (1927), Haywood (1933), Scullard (1970), and Gabriel (2008), have approached him almost exclusively as a military and political figure. In this thesis, however, Scipio will be examined as a figure shaped by Rome’s and his own immersion in the culture of the Hellenistic world during the 3rd and 2nd Centuries BC. It will be argued that the honours and presentation techniques associated with Scipio are by and large products of his own age and that there has been too much emphasis on parallels with figures such as Julius Caesar and on the consequent theory that Scipio’s honours are the product of hindsight. At each stage of Scipio’s public career, he used a combination of Roman and Hellenistic promotional techniques to great effect, engaging with leadership ideals and methods from both cultures to appeal to varying audiences. From his early roles in Rome and Spain, he presented himself in terms of Roman virtues, embodying filial pietas in battle and display, while exploring Hellenistic conceptions of the gods through his personal relationships with Jupiter and Neptune. In Sicily and Africa at the end of the Second Punic War, he further engaged with Greek culture in his manner and dress and established a diplomatic relationship with the Numidian prince, Masinissa, and later with Philip V and Antiochus, that transcended Roman convention. On his travels through Greece and Asia Minor during the war with Antiochus in 190-189, he presented himself as a magnanimous benefactor to local communities and leaders, who responded with honours suitable for a Hellenistic king. His immersion in foreign contexts certainly enhanced opportunities for exploration of Hellenistic technique, but it was equally present in his presentation at Rome. His triumphal procession, his erection of the ‘Arch of Scipio’, and his cultivation of a popular image seem to have drawn on precedents within both Rome and the Hellenistic world. Rome, as part of a broader Mediterranean cultural koine, engaged with and was receptive to Hellenistic culture to a much greater extent than is often acknowledged, and his contemporaries responded to his Hellenistic display with honours and veneration appropriate for a Hellenistic leader, benefactor, or saviour figure. Ultimately, this exploration of Scipio Africanus through a Hellenistic and cultural lens sheds light on the development of Roman elite identity and its engagement with Hellenistic culture during the 3rd and 2nd Centuries BC.

The article presents the latest results of excavations of one of the reference burials of the Kara-Abyz culture, located in the Iglinsky region of the Republic of Bashkortostan. Materials from six burials containing seven skeletons are introduced into scientific circulation. The funeral rite is characterized by the following features: burials were performed according to the rite of inhumation in simple subrectangular grave pits with rounded corners, vertical walls and a flat bottom. The accompanying equipment is represented by a significant number of bronze decorations: zoomorphic belt plates, belt mirror plaques, round plaques, trapezoidal pendants, etc. Weapon items are represented by iron three-bladed arrowheads, horse harness items are presented by iron bits. From the category of household items are presented by iron knives and a spindle whorl. The grave goods allow us to date the identified burials within the 2nd century BC — 2nd century AD.

Before the recent discoveries of the Karakalpak-Australian Expedition to Ancient Chorasmia (KAE) evidence for Zoroastrianism in Chorasmia was scant, coming only from the official use of the Zoroastrian calendar, the onomastics, and the archaeologically documented funerary practices of the region, while the interpretation of remains of temples or fire chapels is subject to discussion. During the last seasons of work on the material of the KAE excavations at Akchakhan-kala, the royal seat of Chorasmia in the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, substantial fragments of wall paintings from the rear wall of the main columned hall of the “Ceremonial Complex” were cleaned and reassembled. It appeared at once that they belong to oversized standing figures, most probably deities. The best preserved image has been identified as Srōsh, god of prayer and protector of the soul after death. The second figure is probably to be identified as a personification of the group of the Fravashis, pre-created souls of the ancestors and protectors of “Aryan people” in battles, also worshipped as deities. A third figure, very partly preserved, perhaps represents Zam-Spandarmad, goddess of the Earth. If these identifications are valid, these deities appear to have been chosen because of their association with the turn of the year. This would be consistent with the possibility that the already known “portrait gallery” of Akchakhan-kala was related to the commemoration of royal and clanic ancestors at the end of the year. Notwithstanding much still needs to be elucidated, it appears already certain that these paintings, dating about the beginning of the 1st century AD, are the earliest documented attempt to create a Zoroastrian art directly inspired by the Avesta. The identification of some figures in the Toprak-kala “High Palace” (2nd-3rd centuries AD) can perhaps be reconsidered in the light of this new evidence.

Historically, Chinas Xinjiang Region has been important in Chinese-Western cultural exchange. This investigation into the diet of human populations in the Xinjiang region provides substantial information on the interactions between China and the West. We report here on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human bone collagen from the 12th century BC to the 2nd century AD at the Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang. The results of this study indicate the consumption of significant amounts of C3-based animal protein throughout these periods. We argue that animal husbandry dominated the lifestyle of ancient Yanghai populations, while agricultural cultivation was less important. The diet of ancient Yanghai human populations clearly changed with time and is closely related to the fluctuation of human populations. More specifically, there were significant differences in food resources available to the Yanghai ancestors in the middle to late Bronze Age (12th Century BC - 8th Century BC), which may reflect the diversity of these populations. Subsequently, during the early Iron Age (7th Century BC - 3rd Century BC), after an extended period of adjustment and development, the diet of all individuals became more similar. However, during the Han Dynasty (2nd Century BC - 2nd Century AD), the human diet consisted of a larger proportion of animal protein than in earlier periods. This suggests that stockbreeding played a more important role in Yanghai during this time. Based on careful consideration of historical records and archaeological features we suggest that this was due to the arrival of the Huns.

For the first time, a contextual consideration of some paleopathological manifestations on the adult skulls from the excavations of the Altyn-Asar 4 (n=363) burial grounds is proposed, which makes it possible to indirectly assess social stratification degree of the population of the Eastern Aral Sea region and the chronological dynamics of some indicators reflecting the quality of life of the population of the era of migrations. Comparison of the total samples selected according to chronology (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, 2nd – 4th centuries, 4th – 6th centuries) revealed consistently high frequencies of enamel hypoplasia, intercalary bones on the cranial vault and metopic suture. In the sample of 2nd – 4th centuries, a downward trend in the frequencies of caries and abscesses was traced. When correlated with the type of burial structures (crypts of 2 types, soil pits of 4 types), a better state of health of the dental system was revealed in individuals in crypts of the first type, and, in general, in those buried in crypts compared to those buried in the soil pits. The most diverse picture is obtained from the analysis of the materials from the detached cemeteries. The frequencies of discretely varying features confirm the previous conclusions about the heterogeneity of the anthropological composition in the Jetyasar population, in particular, of the migrant origin of those buried in the Altyn-Asar 4m burial ground. Variations in the frequency of dental pathologies, anemia, and enamel hypoplasia may reflect differences in the lifestyle and quality of life of those buried in different necropolises, for example, different levels of dietary stress. A high number of skull injuries, including fatal wounds caused by military weapons, indicate the aggressive nature of the social environment. The greatest number of such damages is observed in the 2nd – 4th centuries‘ series.

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In this paper all the sculptures that came to light during the excavation of the University of Crete in the eastern sector I of ancient Eleutherna between 1985-2003 are published, listed in chronological order. During the Hellenistic period, Eleutherna flourished and made its appearance on the historical and artistic scene. It flourished even in the years of Roman rule. Among the many self-standing, relief and architectural works of sculpture the following are distinguished due to their quality and iconographic rarity: the " sandal-slapping Aphrodite with Pan", 2nd century. BC; the relief pair "Hermes and Venus", 1st century BC, and the double-faced stele depicting Dionysus and Ariadne, a product of a neo-attic workshop of the 2nd century A.D. which seems to draw from a Praxitelian original. Editorial NoteVolume 13-14 of Eulimene is devoted to the east sector (I) of the ancient Eleutherna, which was dug systematically by prof. Petros Themelis from 1985 until 2003. In three extensive articles, Petros Themelis, Yorgos Brokalakis and Martha W. Baldwin Bowsky, publish sculptures, tools and inscriptions respectively, unearthed during the excavations conducted during the above period and which date from the Hellenistic period (2nd century BC) to the early byzantine era (mid7th cent. AD). Many of these artifacts are now exhibited in the newly completed Museum of Ancient Eleutherna, which opened its gates to the public in June 2016. The publishing directorsNikos Litinas – Manolis I. Stefanakis

The paper publishes new materials of the early Sarmatian time from the North-East periphery of the Sarmatian World – the Southern forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Trans-Ural region within the bounds of the modern Chelyabinsk region. The territory of the Southern forest-steppe is represented by the materials of the ruined burial, which is situated on the shore of the lake Smolino within the bounds of Chelyabinsk. It is dated by the early 4th century BC. There are three accidental finds from this region: iron daggers as well. The daggers with curved bar-shaped pommels and arcuate cross-guards are classified as daggers of “transitional type” and are dated by the 4th century BC. The third dagger with a semicircular pommel and a straight cross-guard is included in the group of classical Prokhorovka daggers and is dated the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC. This paper presents the materials of two peculiar burial complexes from the steppe zone of the Southern Trans-Urals. The burial near Mogutovka village is the only one burial (without a barrow) of the early Sarmatian time, which was investigated in the Southern Trans-Ural region. It is situated on the first terrace above the floodplain of the Kamysty-Ayat river. The localization of the burial is not typical for the sites of the early Trans-Ural nomads of the 1st millennium BC. The early Sarmatian burial of the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC was excavated in Druzhinskiy burial site. It was made in the burial pit, which combines signs of a catacomb and an alcove. A child buried here was dressed in a shirt, whose collar and sleeves were decorated with beading. Publishing materials will help to expand the point of view on burial rites and material culture of the early Trans-Ural nomads of the early Sarmatian time, which exists in scientific literature.

A Scythian cemetery, located near Glinoe village on the left bank of the Lower Dniester region, was studied by the Dniester archaeological expedition of T. G. Shevchenko Pridnestrovian State University during 1995-2012. Eighteen years of work on this cemetery brought the following results: 113 burial mounds have been studied, including 181 Scythian burials. Analysis of chronological indicators from burials of the Glinoe cemetery allow us to set its lower (turn of 4th – 3rd centuries BC) and upper (last quarter of the 2nd century BC) dates. Currently, there is no doubt that the Scythian steppe culture in the Lower Dniester littoral, not only does not extinguish at the end of the first or third quarter of the 3rd century BC, but also continues to develop until the end of the 2nd century BC, at least. Grave goods on the Glinoe cemetery are represented by all categories – weapons, horse harness, tools, household items, wares, decorations, details and accessories of costume, fancies and cult items. Materials from the Glinoe cemetery allow us to fix, quite surely, the Greek, Thracian and La-Tène elements, expressed in the funerary practice and material culture of the Lower Dniester Scythians. The elements of the material culture of the Central and Eastern European tribes are rarely found in adornments, costume accessories, horse harness and weapons. The emergence of the majority of hooks-clasps and all of the fibulae found on the cemetery however, should be attributed not only to the influence of the East European La-Tène cultures on the steppe Scythians of the North-West Black Sea littoral, but also to the penetration of their carriers directly into the Lower Dniester region. In addition, a belt buckle (2009), a pendant in the form of a sphere (2015, near Ternovka village) and two fibulae (2016, near Slobodzeya town and near Tokmazeya village) of the La-Tène construction were found on the settlements of the Lower Dniester region. But the most informative are items of the La-Tène type which were discovered in the Scythian graves of the last quarter of the 4th – the first half of the 3rd century BC, excavated in 2017 in the barrow groups "Sluiceway" and "Garden", as well as in the barrow 116 of the cemetery near Glinoe. These are torque, two rings and a bracelet, two belt plaques and three fibulae. Analysis of these findings in relation to the items from the Scythian cemetery of the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC near Glinoe village (excavations 1995-2012) shows that from the last quarter of the 4th century BC the material culture of the Scythians of the North-Western Black Sea Region is beginning to be influenced by the La-Tène and La-Tène type cultures of Eastern Europe. In the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC this influence increased and became especially noticeable in the costume complex.