LISTENING COMPREHENSION AND RETELLING SKILLS AMONG STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

This study investigates the reading fluency, reading comprehension, and retelling skills of 135 typically developing primary school students in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades. It aims to evaluate their current levels and examine the relationships among these skills. The study was conducted using a relational survey design, which is one of the quantitative research methods. Data for the study were collected through narrative texts, reading comprehension, and retelling forms appropriate for each grade level. Audio recordings were taken to determine the students' reading fluency and retelling levels, while their reading comprehension levels were assessed in written form. Statistical software was used for data analysis. The results indicated that a significant portion of the students demonstrated instructional-level reading fluency, reading comprehension, and retelling skills. Moreover, a positive and significant relationship was found between the students' reading fluency and their reading comprehension and retelling skills. Based on these results, the retelling technique was used as an assessment tool in this study. However, it is recommended that it be employed as a teaching tool to develop students' retelling skills. Additionally, various methods and techniques can be utilized to improve students' reading fluency and retelling skills.

Reading is an essential language skill in students’ educational success. However, reports have shown that the most prevalent type of academic difficulties among secondary school students with learning disabilities is reading difficulties. Previous studies focused more on interventions to improve reading comprehension achievement of students with learning disabilities than on the influence of metacognitive strategies on students’ reading comprehension achievement. This study, therefore, investigated the influence of metacognitive awareness of (before, during and after) reading strategies on the reading comprehension achievement of students with learning disabilities in Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive research design. A sample of 100 students with learning disabilities was purposively selected from nine SSS in Ibadan, Nigeria. Instruments used were Academic records, Screening Checklist for Suspected Learning Disabilities, English Language Achievement Test, Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Questionnaire and the Reading Comprehension Test. Data collected were analyzed using the Multiple regression analysis at 0.05 level of significance. There was a joint contribution of the independent variables (metacognitive awareness of before, during and after reading strategies) to reading comprehension achievement (F(3,96)=3.61; R2=0.101). The result also reveals the relative contributions of metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (before, during and after) to the reading comprehension achievement among students with learning disabilities as follows: before (β = 0.25), after (β = 0.23) and during (β = -0.17) reading strategies. The study concludes that metacognitive awareness of (before, during and after) reading strategies influence reading comprehension achievement of students with learning disabilities. It is therefore recommended that students with learning disabilities should be trained on the use of metacognitive (before, during and after) reading strategies for improved reading comprehension achievement.

With the majority of students with learning disabilities (LD) having difficulties in reading, teachers at all grade levels need to incorporate comprehension strategies into their instruction to explicitly teach students with LD how to use the strategies to enhance their comprehension. One way for teachers to support students' comprehension of narrative text is to actively instruct them in using story grammar strategies. Story grammar provides students with a framework to help them understand narrative texts and includes common elements such as plot, character, setting, and theme. This review provides an overview of research focused on using story grammar as a comprehension strategy, as well as examines the success of the strategy with students with special needs and reading difficulties. ********** As students progress through school, their reading comprehension, or the gathering of meaning from printed word (Sencibaugh, 2007), becomes more crucial because teachers present new material through text (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997). Explicit instruction in this area can help students with learning disabilities (LD) make gains in their comprehension (NRP, 2000; RAND, 2002; Williams, 2002). For students with LD, as well as students who struggle with reading (Morgan & Fuchs, 2007), helpful instructional strategies include such methods as prior knowledge activation, vocabulary instruction, strategies instruction, peer programs, repeated readings, and story grammar/structure instruction (Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, & Baker, 2001). One comprehension strategy, story grammar, maintains that every narrative story has a beginning, a conflict that emerges with rising action, a high point or climax of the conflict, and an ending or resolution of the conflict (Dickson, Simmons, & Kameenui, 1998b). Other elements of story grammar include information about the main and supporting characters and the theme of the story (Dimino, Gersten, Carnine, & Blake, 1990). Story grammar has often also been referred to as story schema (Mandler & DeForest, 1979) which is actually the representation of story structure that readers carry in their minds (Amer, 1992) or story structure which is how it is used in the structure of stories (Singer & Donlan, 1982). Story mapping (Duke & Pearson, 2002) is the visual representation of story grammar that can be as simple as an outline or as detailed as a complex picture or visual organizer. Studies have found that typical students normally cease to need instruction in the elements of story grammar around the fourth grade level (Mandler & Johnson, 1977; Stein & Glenn, 1979). Research describing, comparing, and correlating story grammar abilities across age and ability levels shows that students with LD do not have as well developed sense of story grammar as their non-disabled peers, which may explain why their reading comprehension is poorer (Griffith, Dastoli, Ripich, & Nwakanma, 1985; Griffith, Ripich, & Dastoli, 1986; Montague, Maddux, & Dereshiwsky, 1990; Ouellette, Dagostino, & Carifio, 1998; Wilkinson, Elkins, & Bain, 1995). Students with LD recall fewer elements of a story and seem to have trouble identifying the more abstract elements of a story, such as theme and resolution. However, these same studies suggest that interventions involving expansion of students' with disabilities knowledge of story structure, might improve their reading comprehension (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006; Dimino, Taylor, & Gersten, 1995; Duke & Pearson, 2002; NRP, 2000; RAND, 2002). Since the research points to instruction in story grammar as beneficial to improving reading comprehension in students both with and without LD, it is important that educators actively teach story grammar and other comprehension skills in their classrooms. For example, it is known that teaching both comprehension strategy instruction (Franzak, 2006; NRP, 2000; RAND, 2002) and metacognitive awareness of comprehension monitoring (Dickson, Collins, Simmons, & Kameenui, 1998; Gersten, et al. …

Dyslexia is defined as difficulties determining speech sounds and learning the relationships of speech sounds with letters and words. Children with learning disabilities may experience problems in attention, memory, perception, motor processing, information processing speed, planning and problem-solving skills. Although lack of phonological processing is considered one of the leading causes of dyslexia, the level of influence of other underlying factors such as cognitive deficits on reading gain is still unclear. Numerous studies have shown that dyslexia is associated with poor working memory, a critical component of reading skill acquisition because the temporary processing of newly introduced and previously stored information involves critical thinking, use of cognitive executive skills, comprehension, and learning tasks. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider their functions distinct in that working memory allows for the manipulation of the information temporarily stored in short-term memory. Working memory, which provides preservation, integration and processing of verbal and visual-spatial information, works together with short-term memory to help the mind manipulate and determine important information while temporary. This study discussed the effects of working memory on reading, reading comprehension, and high-level language skills.

In a recent issue of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Danforth, Slocum, and Dunkle (2010) discussed the historical contributions of Dr. Samuel A. Kirk, a well known special education pioneer and psychologist, to the fields of mental retardation (now known as intellectual disability) and learning disabilities. Although we agree with some of the authors' points—including the assertion that Kirk had a powerful influence for decades on the development and delivery of special education services for all children—several of their statements do not appear to represent Kirk's viewpoints accurately or provide adequate representations of the origins and conceptual foundations of the learning disability field and its relationship to mental retardation. In order to set the record straight, we have used Kirk's exact words within this response from his publications over his lifetime to place into proper historical perspective his views on the origins of the learning disabilities field, as well as the relationship between mental retardation and learning disabilities. Contrary to the statements made by Danforth et al., we maintain that Kirk's beliefs concerning mental retardation and learning disabilities were not complex and confusing.In fact, the claims made by Danforth et al. (2010) seem to us to be the result of a bit of revisionist history. In this article, we discuss several of Danforth et al.'s comments, including (a) the history of the learning disability construct, (b) Kirk's three claims regarding the constructs of learning disability and mental retardation, (c) the concept of intraindividual differences, (d) the assertion that Kirk left children with mental retardation behind, and (e) the belief in the educability and potential of all children.Danforth et al. (2010) asserted thatKirk did not believe that learning disability was a "recent invention," or that it was "crafted as a conceptual outgrowth of the mental retardation construct," or "developed by researchers working with children with mental retardation." The origins of the conceptual foundations of learning disability are nearly as longstanding as many of the other disability categories, and the roots can be traced back to at least the early 1800s (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002; Hammill, 1993; Wiederholt, 1974). In fact, Kirk often noted that the most common learning disability, dyslexia or specific reading disability, has been studied for over a century and has its own history that is totally separate from the history of mental retardation. In this regard, Kirk and Gallagher (1983) stated:Kirk (1974) further wrote: "Disabilities in reading, writing, and spelling have been of interest to neurologists, ophthalmologists, psychologists, and educators since and before the beginning of this century" (p. 1).Danforth et al. (2010) noted that the conceptual and diagnostic basis for learning disability evolved from the "Strauss syndrome." Although Kirk was highly influenced by the work of Alfred Strauss and acknowledged the contributions of Strauss by explaining that "Strauss gave the initial impetus to the field of learning disabilities" (Kirk & Chalfant, 1984, p. 30), he always maintained that "The discipline now called learning disabilities had its beginning in the early contributions of neurologists who studied the loss of language in adults and ophthalmologists who were concerned about children's inability to develop language or to read or spell" (Kirk & Chalfant, 1984, p. 21). For example, throughout his writings, Kirk discussed how the origins of specific reading disability can be traced back to the 1800s when various physicians studied brain injury in patients who had lost the ability to read (Kirk & Chalfant, 1984; Kirk & Gallagher, 1983). Physicians from the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States provided the first case studies of individuals who had lost the power to read—usually because of a stroke or brain injury—and these physicians attempted to identify the characteristics, etiology, and methods that would be most effective for treating these reading disorders (Anderson & Meier-Hedde, 2001). As an example, in 1872, Sir William Broadbent described the cortical damage present in an autopsy of an individual who had speech disturbances and reading disabilities (Broadbent, 1872). Five years later, Kussmaul (1877a) noted that "a complete text blindness may exist although the power of sight, the intellect, and the powers of speech are intact" (p. 595). In this regard, the term word blindness was first applied to individuals with aphasia who had lost the ability to read (Kussmaul, 1877b). Thus, Kussmaul gave birth to the idea of specific reading disability (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002), a type of learning disability that Kirk would study his entire career (Kirk, 1984).From early in his career, Kirk was fascinated by the enigma of children with specific reading disabilities and how they could be best served. In 1929, he began his master's degree at the University of Chicago. During his graduate studies, he also worked as a resident instructor at the Oaks School in Oak Park, Illinois (a suburb of Chicago), where his job was to manage 50 delinquent boys who had mental retardation (Kirk, 1984). He worked at the school under the tutelage of Dr. Marion Monroe, a researcher at the Institute for Juvenile Research in Chicago and a leading reading expert who had originally worked with Dr. Samuel Orton in Iowa. Orton is often described as providing the first report on word blindness in America and as being the key figure for setting the stage for the study of reading disabilities in the United States (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002).Kirk, therefore, had parallel interests in both mental retardation and the concept of reading disability, dating back to his early graduate studies and his work experiences at the time. Reflecting on his experiences at the Oaks School, Kirk (1976) stated:Kirk's first publication based on his master's thesis was a study that explored the learning of simple words by what he referred to as "subnormal boys" (Kirk, 1933). He later explained (Kirk, 1984):As did Fernald, Orton, and Monroe, Kirk found that retention for word learning was improved when tracing was added to the teaching procedure. Kirk (1984) also hypothesized at this time that "remedial reading might alleviate delinquency in some children" (p. 29).As was the case with other early pioneers, Kirk was concerned about finding the most efficacious ways of instruction for children who were struggling to learn to read. Kirk (1984) explained how Monroe's 1932 book, Children Who Cannot Read, was for a while his "bible" (p. 31) and how her system of diagnosing reading errors and profiling abilities and disabilities continued to influence his work in later years. In discussing Monroe's remedial program, Kirk noted that "Her remedial work was continued by two of her students who studied with her at the Institute for Juvenile Research in Chicago" (Kirk & Chalfant, 1984, p. 32). These two students, Thorleif G. Hegge and Samuel A. Kirk, along with his wife, Winifred, went on to develop the Hegge, Kirk, and Kirk Remedial Reading Drills (1936), which evolved from the study of children with reading disabilities, and their development was "influenced by Marion Monroe and the Fernald kinesthetic method" (Kirk, 1984, p. 32).Monroe (1932) also created an expectancy formula as a way of identifying reading disabilities that was based on comparing a child's chronological age, mental age, and arithmetic ability to reading performance (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002; Monroe, 1932). The resulting discrepancy indicated the severity of the reading disability. Influenced by Monroe, Kirk (1962) recommended that for diagnosing severe reading disabilities (dyslexia), one would determine a child's reading potential or capacity by comparing his or her Stanford-Binet IQ score and measures of vocabulary and arithmetic computation to the present level of reading achievement (pp. 265–266). This type of discrepancy expectancy formula or ability-achievement discrepancy was incorporated into P. L. 94–142, Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975).Danforth et al. (2010) asserted that Kirk's own thinking about the relationships between mental retardation and learning disabilities was complex, multifaceted, and confusing. They noted that Kirk made the following three claims: (a) mental retardation was an exclusionary criterion to learning disability, (b) a child could have both a learning disability and mental retardation, and that (c) "learning disability was often mental retardation in disguise" (p. 189). Although it is understandable how readers unfamiliar with the origins of these fields could view such claims as "complex and even confusing" (p. 188), Kirk, in fact, viewed them as quite consistent as we discuss below.Danforth et al. (2010) indicated that Kirk "came to believe that he could not promote the new learning disability construct without clearly distinguishing it from the older, more established condition of mental retardation" (p. 182). On the surface, Danforth et al.'s statement is true. In fact, Kirk (1977) stated that the characteristics associated with learning disabilities were distinguishable from those associated with mental retardation, and in his scholarly endeavors and governmental public policy work during his years in Washington, DC, he attempted to differentiate between these two constructs. Kirk was well aware that federal legislation in the late 1950s and early 1960s already provided teacher training for students having mental retardation (e.g., P.L. 85–926, National Defense Education Act of 1958, that provided funds for training professionals to train teachers of students having mental retardation) and for students who were deaf (e.g., PL 87–276, Special Education Act of 1961, that provided funds for training professionals to train teachers of students who were deaf) (Kirk, 1984).Just as he had done for children having cerebral palsy or mental retardation, Kirk wanted to create another category of special education that would protect and provide services for children with specific learning disabilities. In discussing the category of learning disabilities, Kirk and Gallagher (1983) explained: "The label learning disability includes the heterogeneous group of children who do not fit neatly into the traditional categories of handicapped children" (p. 366). In the 1950s and early 1960s, public schools did not provide special educational services for these children. Kirk and Chalfant (1984) explained that the field of learning disabilities emerged for the following two reasons:Hammill (1993) also agreed that the most influential group in the learning disabilities movement were parents; it was their advocacy work that was primarily responsible for the specific legislation that was passed. In fact, Kirk often noted the important role and success of parents and parent groups, such as the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, in establishing through litigation the rights of their children with disabilities (Kirk & Gallagher, 1983, p. 15).Kirk attempted to differentiate between those learning disabilities that were attributed to a neurological impediment that resulted in a specific academic problem from the more generic learning problems in children that could result from limited school attendance, inadequate instruction, or other environmental conditions. Such children were excluded from the learning disability category because their difficulties could be attributed to a lack of opportunity to learn (Kirk & Gallagher, 1983). In 1963, Kirk was invited to speak at the Conference on Exploration Into Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child. He proposed that the term learning disability be used to categorize these children who did not fall into the traditional categories of disability, but nevertheless had learning impairments (Kirk, 1984).Kirk was also concerned that learning disability would become a category for all types of learning problems when it was meant to capture only those individuals with specific disabilities that did not interfere with all types of learning. He found that the field of learning disabilities was experiencing the same type of problems with expansion and misidentification as did programs for the educable mentally retarded, stating:Kirk, therefore, was very concerned about differentiating between children having mental retardation, where their learning was negatively affected across many academic and adaptive learning skills areas (e.g., reading, math calculation, spelling, writing, social interactions, eating, dressing) from those having a specific learning disability within one or more academic areas (e.g., reading and/or math calculation).Danforth et al. (2010) noted that "Kirk steadfastly maintained that, in some instances, a child could have both a learning disability and mental retardation" (p. 187). This statement is true and an accurate reflection of Kirk's beliefs. Because Kirk viewed a learning disability as a perceptual impairment, a person of any level of intelligence, including intellectually gifted individuals, could have a learning disability. In an interview with Arena (1978), Kirk explained this conceptualization of learning disability: "I like to define a learning disability as a psychological or neurological impediment to development of adequate perceptual or communicative behavior, which first is manifested in discrepancies among specific behaviors or between overall performance and academic achievement" (p. 617). Kirk, Kliebhan, and Lerner (1978) also noted that "the concept of discrepancy applies to mentally superior, mentally normal, and mentally retarded children" (p. 27). Thus, Kirk did maintain that individuals of any level of intelligence and with any other disability could also have a learning disability. He understood that comorbidity can exist among numerous disorders, such as a child having both a sensory impairment and mental retardation or a child having both a learning disability and physical impairments. Kirk (1962) explained this in the following manner:Thus, for Kirk a learning disability differed from mental retardation in that it stemmed "from intrinsic cognitive or perceptual difficulties interfering with a child's learning" (Kirk, 1984, p. 40). He further stated:Children who have mental retardation or an emotional disability could also have an intrinsic neurological impediment to learning; and these children would be considered to be "multiply handicapped and remediated as such" (Kirk & Chalfant, 1984, p. 16). Thus Kirk noted that learning disabilities are "not primarily due to severe mental retardation, sensory handicaps, emotional problems, or lack of opportunity to learn" (Kirk & Gallagher, 1983, p. 368).Kirk was always concerned about misclassification of children because it would lead to inadequate understanding of the child as well as inappropriate instruction. Kirk and Chalfant (1984) stated: "In classifying children for instructional purposes, considerable care must be taken to avoid mistaken diagnoses and misclassifications" (p. 14). Kirk was well aware that children could be diagnosed as having mental retardation when, in fact, they did not. He found that some children who were classified as having mental retardation would be better classified as having learning disabilities. Throughout his career, he stressed that the diagnosis of children was for the purpose of remediation, not for classification or categorization. In this regard, Kirk and Johnson (1951) stated: "The purpose of any diagnosis, or the determination of etiology, is to assist in structuring the most adequate rehabilitation procedures" (p. 109).Kirk always viewed the concept of intraindividual discrepancies as a defining feature of learning disabilities, with Kirk and Gallagher (1983) stating the following: "Although such children form a heterogeneous group and fail to learn for diverse reasons, they have one thing in common: discrepancies (intraindividual differences) in abilities and achievement" p. 366). Regardless of the type of disability, however, Kirk was always interested in the concept of intraindividual differences, specifying what children could do, what they had difficulty doing, and, most importantly, how to resolve their difficulties. He commented: "I have felt for some time that labels we give children are satisfying to us but of little help to the child himself" (Kirk, 1975, p. 8). He felt that labels did not translate into intervention needs, and these needs could only be determined through thorough study of each child. He wrote: "Their classification as mentally retarded had little relevance to the training of these children. Each child needed a diagnosis, and each child needed a different program (Kirk, 1984, p. 37). Kirk always asserted that instead of using labels "it is more accurate and meaningful to describe behavior" (Kirk, 1975, p. 9). When evaluating children with mental retardation, he asked the following questions: "What abilities does this child have? What deficits exist? What do we do about these particular deficits?" (Kirk, 1984, p. 37).These types of questions led Kirk to develop a test of specific perceptual and linguistic functions, the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities–ITPA (Kirk, McCarthy, & Kirk, 1968). Profiles were used to identify a specific child's strengths and weaknesses for the purpose of planning the most appropriate educational intervention. Kirk (1962) explained the importance of profiles, stating: "The profiles showed typical assets and deficits in growth which necessitate different educational methods and programs for various types of deviant children; the gifted, mentally retarded, auditorily handicapped, visually handicapped, speech handicapped, crippled, socially maladjusted, and multiply handicapped" (p. 32). Kirk (1984) further observed that "the ITPA was popular from the beginning because it is an intraindividual test, comparing a child's own abilities and disabilities for the purpose of organizing remediation for deficits" (p. 38).Throughout their article, Danforth et al. (2010) suggested that Kirk's turning of his "educability narrative" was a way to promote the learning disability construct while negating mental retardation. In describing how Kirk's viewpoints changed, Danforth et al. stated:Danforth et al. further explained thatDanforth et al. (2010) asserted that "Students with learning disabilities were nuggets of gold among the coal heap, untapped assets buried within a defective population, awaiting discovery and instructional polishing up" (p. 190) and thatThus, Kirk is portrayed as turning away from the population of children having mental retardation, essentially leaving these children behind, in a "coal heap" because of their limited learning potential. Danforth et al. did, however, note at one point that Kirk "remained a strong supporter of the educational training of students with mental retardation throughout his career" (p. 190), but later, they more negatively claimed that this message was somehow lost or obscured and that he "also negated that very message in certain circumstances" (p. 190). In addition, in discussing a quote by Kirk, Danforth et al. explained that Kirk asserted that although a child with mental retardation required "care" and "management," the child with learning disabilities had assets and disabilities that may be amenable to remediation.To set the record straight, Kirk never negated the message of being a strong supporter of the education and training of students with mental retardation; he only attempted in many of his publications, speeches, and federal government public policy work to clarify the similarities and differences between mental retardation and learning disabilities. Moreover, concerning the aforementioned comment by Danforth et al. (2010) regarding the "care" and "management" quote by Kirk in relation to mental retardation, readers of this Journal and Danforth et al. should be aware of the fact that Kirk stated that the label of mental retardation applies to children who require "certain kinds of care, management, and education [italics added]" (Kirk, 1967, p. 13). Education was never excluded by Kirk from care and management, as Danforth et al. suggested.Kirk believed that all children, regardless of type of disability, had learning potential and would be responsive to educational intervention and treatment. He commented that his experience at the Wayne County Training School "pointed out to me that much more could be done with handicapped children than most people believed" (Kirk, 1984, p. 32) and "biased me toward a belief in the power of intervention" (Kirk, 1984, p. 35). Throughout his career, Kirk was a champion for children with all types of abilities and disabilities, including those who were gifted. He was concerned with the accurate identification of disabilities for ensuring the most effective services. Kirk would not agree that he turned his back on children having mental retardation or that these children had limited learning potential. In fact, he commented that throughout his career, it was "a great source of satisfaction to participate and help the parent movements—first for children with cerebral palsy, then for the mentally retarded, and lastly for the learning disabled" (Kirk, 1984, p. 41). When helping one group, he never abandoned the others as Danforth et al. implied. Kirk always believed in the educability and potential of all children and that all children were unique and deserving of the best instruction possible.Kirk (1962) maintained that one basic principle was inherent in the philosophy of a democracy, namely, that all children have the right to develop to their maximum potential. He commented that the expression "All men are created equal" denotes not only equality before the law, but also equality of opportunity. He summarized his view as follows:This, in fact, is the legacy that Dr. Samuel A. Kirk left behind, not just for the fields of learning disability and intellectual disability, but for all areas of disability.

Learning disabilities significantly affect students' academic performance, particularly in spelling proficiency among primary school learners. This study aimed to develop and validate the Learning Disabilities Spelling Scale (LDSS) and to evaluate the effectiveness of a remedial educational intervention designed to enhance spelling skills in students with learning disabilities. A quasi-experimental design with experimental and control groups was employed. 24 primary school students diagnosed with learning disabilities participated in the study and were assigned to an experimental group and a control group. The LDSS was administered at three time points to examine both immediate and sustained effects of the intervention on spelling performance. Findings revealed statistically significant differences in post-test in favor of the experimental group compared with the control group, indicating the effectiveness of the remedial educational program. In addition, there were no statistically significant differences between the experimental group's post-test and follow-up scores, supporting the sustained positive outcomes associated with the intervention. Findings support the use of the structured remedial educational programs to improve and sustain spelling performance. These results underscore the importance of targeted assessment and intervention in addressing literacy-related learning disabilities in primary education and highlight implications for practice and future research on remediation and progress monitoring.

The study aimed to assess the utilization of scaffolding strategies in enhancing academic success for students with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms in selected public secondary schools during the school year 2024-2025 basis for strategic plan. The respondents of the study were thirty (30) teachers in selected public secondary schools in Bulacan, Philippines. The respondents assessed the extent of utilization of scaffolding strategies in enhancing academic success for students with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms in terms of student engagement, students’ skill development, students’ self-efficacy and confidence, and teacher implementation fidelity. The findings revealed that the most common scaffolding tools used by educators to improve the academic performance of children with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms are guided practice, visual aids, questioning strategies, and prompting and cueing. Also, the performance of students with disabilities significantly improves before and after the implementation of scaffolding strategies to enhance academic success. Moreso, a notable disparity exists in the performance levels of students with disabilities prior to and following the use of scaffolding tactics aimed at improving academic success for students with learning difficulties in inclusive classrooms. In addition, scaffolding tactics are consistently utilized to improve academic achievement for students with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms, focusing on student engagement, skill development, self-efficacy, confidence, and teacher implementation fidelity. Further, a notable association exists between the use of scaffolding tactics to improve academic success in inclusive classrooms and the performance levels of students with disabilities, as indicated by posttest results. As an outcome of the findings and the conclusions, the following recommendations were enumerated: Teachers may tailor scaffolding methods to meet diverse student needs by using visual aids, hands-on activities, and verbal prompts to ensure all learners access the content effectively. Teachers may create an inclusive space where students feel comfortable asking questions and seeking help, encouraging collaborative learning and peer support. Teachers may demonstrate tasks step-by-step and clarify objectives to help students understand what is expected, fostering independence over time. School Administrators may offer ongoing training for teachers on effective scaffolding techniques and inclusive practices to ensure they are equipped with current strategies. School administrators may provide access to tools such as speech-to-text software, audiobooks, and visual organizers that support scaffolding and accommodate various learning needs.

Reading is a fundamental skill required for effective participation in academic tasks. This research investigated the significant main effects of phonics and neurological impress instructional methods on the reading skills of pupils with learning disabilities. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group design with a 3 x 2 factorial matrix was used. Purposive sampling was used to select forty-five students with learning disabilities (N = 45, M = 22, F = 23, Mean age = 9.3) from three government-owned primary schools. Six instruments were used: Pupil Rating Scale (Revised) (r = 0.75); Picture Vocabulary Test (r = 0.75); PALS-PreK (r = 0.82); Informal Reading Inventory (r = 0.70); and Umolu's One Hundred High Frequency Words (r = 0.85). The data collected were analysed using the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and an estimated marginal mean score of 0.05 level is of significance. The findings revealed that treatment had a significant main effect on the reading skills of students with learning disabilities (F_{(2, 42)} = 43.178, p < .05, η² =.762), but gender had no significant main effect. It is recommended that phonics and neurological impress instructional methods be adopted when teaching reading skills to pupils with learning disabilities.

BackgroundStudents with learning disabilities often struggle to achieve expected academic performance despite average or above‐average intelligence. Reading comprehension, a cognitive process involving multiple mental skills, is particularly challenging for these students, with approximately 80% experiencing difficulties.AimsThis study investigates the relationship between academic self‐concept and reading comprehension among middle school students with learning disabilities, focusing on the serial mediating roles of reading anxiety and reading motivation.Sample(s)The sample consists of 302 middle school students (165 males, 137 females) diagnosed with learning disabilities. The participants included 77 fifth graders, 80 sixth graders, 75 seventh graders and 70 eighth graders.MethodsStructural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to analyse the data, with reading anxiety and reading motivation considered as mediators.ResultsThe SEM results indicated that reading motivation partially mediated the relationship between academic self‐concept and reading comprehension, while reading anxiety and reading motivation together fully mediated this relationship.ConclusionsThe findings highlight the importance of addressing both reading anxiety and motivation to improve reading comprehension in students with learning disabilities. Enhancing academic self‐concept and reducing reading anxiety can significantly boost reading motivation and comprehension skills.

Protocol for a Systematic Review: Targeted School‐Based Interventions for Improving Reading and Mathematics for Students With or At‐Risk of Academic Difficulties in Grade 7 to 12: A Systematic Review

Introduction. Nowadays society is in demand for skills required to conduct scientific research using a foreign language, among other things, but the problem is that students do not have well-formed research skills. In addition, the undergraduate curriculum does not provide for a separate learning course for the formation of such skills. The purpose of the study is to theoretically and practically substantiate the effectiveness of the application of a professionally oriented distance learning course in a foreign language to the formation of research skills in university students of non-linguistic degree courses. Materials and methods. The study involved second-year students (N = 34) pursuing a degree in “Pedagogical education” (main subjects “History, Social science subjects (Social science, Geography)”, “History, Social science”) at Bunin Yelets State University. For statistical data processing before and after the experiment, methods of mathematical statistics and Mann–Whitney U test, in particular, were used. Research results. It was revealed that the proposed authors’ course is effective for the formation of research skills in students of non-linguistic degree courses at a university. The data obtained at the control stage of the experiment after training indicate that the level of formation of research skills in students in the experimental group is much higher than in the control group (U = 70; p &lt; 0,01). Conclusion. The data on the methods for the formation of research skills in university students are systematized and summarized; the formation of research skills in undergraduate students of non-linguistic degree courses while implementing the authors’ specialized distance learning course in a foreign language is experimentally verified; the effectiveness of this course for the formation of students’ research skills while working with foreign language material was proved. Keywords: distance learning course, professional orientation, research skills, foreign language, nonlinguistic degree course

The role of students' listening ability and retelling skills is crucial in the teaching and learning process, particularly in elementary education where foundational skills are developed. In this context, listening ability directly influences how well students can comprehend instructional content, while retelling skills allow them to effectively organize and communicate the information. This study analyzes the impact of Nusantara animated video media on the listening ability and retelling skills of fourth-grade elementary school students. A quantitative experimental approach with a nonequivalent control group design was employed, involving a sample of 89 students divided into two groups: the experimental group (Jarakan Public Elementary School and Jarakan Public Elementary School 3) and the control group (Blunyahan Public Elementary School 2 and Sawit Public Elementary School). The schools were selected based on similar demographic and educational backgrounds to ensure comparability. Research instruments included a listening ability test and an observation sheet for retelling skills. Data analysis using the Wilcoxon test showed a significant positive impact of Nusantara animated video media on both listening and retelling skills (p 0.05). The findings suggest that incorporating Nusantara animated video media into classroom instruction is an effective strategy to enhance these critical skills, particularly in the context of Indonesian language learning. This study highlights the broader educational implications, including potential applications in curriculum design, teacher training, and educational policy development.

The formal instruction process of teaching reading to emergent and beginning readers needs to incorporate a much more multimodal approach. People today, not only in America but in many other countries as well, are more graphically oriented than any other generation has ever been. Children in our society expect to experience pictures and images in almost everything they encounter. This graphic orientation needs to be taken advantage of and incorporated into the educational process in ways that can be beneficial to the learning environments of children in our schools. Reading programs need to forego one-dimensional teaching methods and learn how to expand their methodologies by taking advantage of various approaches that prove to be advantageous to the development of children. This study observed emergent readers as they demonstrated comprehension and retelling skills both with and without the aid of illustrations that would normally accompany a story. Observations and informal, descriptive assessment of indirect vocabulary development in relation to the books used in the study were conducted. These observations and assessments were directly linked to whether the studentparticipant was shown or not shown the illustrations of a story that was read to him or her. The study also described the personal impact that picture book illustrations had on students as they related to the processes of learning how to read. The study showed that students who visually experienced the illustrations accompanying a picture book had greater overall story comprehension and retelling ability than those who did not see the pictures of the story. It showed, as well, that the students who saw the pictures as a story was read to them had greater indirect vocabulary development than did those students who did not see the illustrations as the story was read aloud to them.

Learning Disability in Children as an Outcome in Anesthesia and Analgesia Research

This research aimed to explore the effects of story reading on first-grade students’ comprehension and retelling skills. A total of 30 first-grade students constituted the research sample. For this quasi- experimental research, the first-grade students were assigned to the treatment and comparison groups at random. In the treatment group, the stories were read to the students daily and after reading the stories, the informal conversations related to stories occurred. All the daily activities related the books read, which included efferent and aesthetic dimensions based on Rosenblatt’s transactional theory, lasted around half an hour. In the story conversations, it was focused on story elements including characters, setting, plot, conflict, and resolution and the effects of stories on the students. For the pretest and posttest assessment of the first-grade students, a grade-level story was read to the students in both two groups and asked each one of them to retell the story. In addition, after retelling the process, five Ws and one H technique were used to discuss the story and clarify comprehension levels of the students in the groups. This one-on-one assessment procedure was taken place for learning the awareness of the students on the story structure if the student retells orderly the events the story, the sentence structures of the students, and the students’ comprehension levels. The results of the research were discussed through the related literature and some profound implications of the research on first-grade students’ education were provided.