Linking neurological status to functional outcomes in spinal cord injury: a multi-class, task-specific approach.

Polysialic Acid Glycomimetic Promotes Functional Recovery and Plasticity After Spinal Cord Injury in Mice

# Presentation CPSS1: Spinal insufficiency fracture in the geriatric pediatric spine {#article-title-2} Regular corticosteroid has become standard for slowing disease progression in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). However, patients must contend with the insidious side effect of osteopenia and

The development of treatment strategies that can help patients with spinal cord injury to regain lost functions and an improved quality of life is a major medical challenge, and experimental spinal co

AANS: American Association of Neurological Surgeons AIS: Abbreviated Injury Scale ASIA: American Spinal Injury Association CNS: Congress of Neurological Surgeons CSFD: cerebrospinal fluid drainage FDA: Food and Drug Administration FGF: fibroblast growth factor G-CSF: granulocyte colony-stimulating factor HGF: hepatocyte growth factor IL: interleukin iPSC: induced pluripotent stem cell MAP: mean arterial blood pressure MPSS: methylprednisolone sodium succinate MSC: mesenchymal stem cell NASCIS: National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Studies Nogo: neurite outgrowth inhibitor NgR: Nogo receptor NPC: neural precursor cell NSS: Neuro-Spinal Scaffold OEC: olfactory ensheathing cell OPC: oligodendrocyte progenitor cell PEG: polyethylene glycol PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) SCI: spinal cord injury TH: therapeutic hypothermia TNF: tumor necrosis factor Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating event caused by trauma to the spine which leads to mechanical disruption of the spinal cord. The incidence of SCI varies worldwide. Focusing on developed regions, North America (39 per million) has a higher annual incidence than Australia (16 per million) or Western Europe (15 per million).1 Direct costs for lifetime patient care reach $1.1 to 4.6 million per patient, which further underscores the need for the development of effective SCI treatments.2 Substantial research effort has been dedicated to uncovering the pathophysiology of SCI. This has led to the development of pharmacologic and cell-based therapies, which are now demonstrating functional motor recovery in animal models. Among these, several promising therapeutic agents are already being investigated in clinical trials for SCI. This review will summarize the pathophysiology and current evidence-based clinical strategies to manage an acute spinal cord injury followed by a discussion of key emerging treatments including pharmacological approaches, cell-based therapies, biomaterials and physiological approaches. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Phases of SCI Tissue damage after SCI has been divided into primary and secondary injury phases.3,4 The physical forces of the initial trauma cause the primary injury and this is the main determinant of the severity of SCI. The axons, blood vessels, and cell membranes are disrupted by physical forces such as compression, shearing, laceration, and acute stretch. Secondary injury refers to delayed, progressive damage which continues after the primary injury and represents an additional important determinant of neurological deficits (Figure).5,6 Due to the disruption of the blood–spinal cord barrier following the primary injury, infiltration of inflammatory cells such as macrophages, microglia, T-cells, and neutrophils can be observed. Inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α, interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6 are released by these cells, with levels of these cytokines peaking 6 to 12 h after injury and remaining elevated up to 4 d after injury.7 Increases in intracellular calcium are caused by the disruption of ionic homeostasis after SCI and activates calcium-dependent proteases (eg, phospholipases, calpain, caspase, and nitric oxide synthase). These proteases trigger dysfunction of mitochondria which leads to cell death.8 Oligodendrocytes are highly susceptible to apoptotic loss and apoptosis has been observed, not only at the lesion epicenter, but also distant from the epicenter leading to demyelination of preserved axons.9-11 Furthermore, delayed necrosis and apoptosis are induced by reactive oxygen species which are released by phagocytic inflammatory cells.12-14 Moreover, the disrupted cells release excitatory amino acids (eg, glutamate and asparate) after SCI15,16 and the excessive activation of excitatory amino acid receptors causes further loss of neurons and glia by both necrotic and apoptotic cell death.17 To achieve repair and regeneration of the injured spinal cord, researchers have attempted to disrupt elements of the secondary injury pathway with the aim of neural preservation, inhibition of the barriers to axonal regeneration, and replacement of the damaged cells by cell transplantation therapy. From a pathophysiological perspective, it is likely that the optimal therapy will be a combinatorial one consisting of administration of drugs to reduce secondary injury at the acute phase, followed by cell transplantation or other regenerative therapies to regenerate the damaged spinal cord tissue in the subacute to chronic phases.18,19 These therapies are discussed in greater detail below.FIGURE: Three pathophysiological phases after SCI including acute (eg, hemorrhage, edema, and inflammation), subacute (eg, demyelination and axonal dieback), and chronic (eg, cavity formation) phases. Primary injury is caused by the physical forces of the initial traumatic event. Secondary injury refers to delayed, progressive damage which includes inflammation, loss of ionic homeostasis, oxidative damage, excitotoxicity, apoptosis, and necrosis. Oligodendrocytes are highly susceptible to apoptotic loss resulting in axonal demyelination. Cystic cavitation forms in the center of the spinal cord, with surrounding glial scar in the subacute and chronic phases. Nonastrocyte cells mainly form a chemical barrier by secreting growth inhibitory CSPGs.Barriers to Regeneration The adult mammalian Congress of Neurological Surgeons (CNS), including the spinal cord, has generally been considered to have limited regenerative capacity due to the finite number of available regenerative cells and the restricted plasticity of the adult CNS.20 While recent research has shown that the spinal cord has more regenerative capacity than was previously thought,21,22 compared with the peripheral nervous system, the regenerative capacity of the CNS is lower and it gradually decreases with increasing age.23 Schwab et al24 reported the inhibitory nature of CNS myelin in 1985. Myelin-associated proteins, such as neurite outgrowth inhibitor A (Nogo A),25,26 oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein,27 and myelin-associated glycoprotein28,29 function through Nogo receptors (NgR). The NgRs lack an intracellular signaling domain and transduce inhibitory signals by forming coreceptor complexes with TNF receptor family proteins (eg, p75, TROY, and LIGO-1) to activate the GTPase Rho A. The downstream effector of Rho A is Rho-associated protein kinase which affects changes in the actin cytoskeleton and leads to growth cone collapse of regenerating axons, neurite retraction, and increasing apoptosis. SCI is accompanied by mechanically induced and excitotoxic cell death, with associated demyelination. The lost parenchyma is replaced by cystic cavitation and regeneration is often hindered by the presence of this cystic cavity which lacks the substrate to support axonal growth and cell migration.30 Furthermore, at the site of injury, glial and fibrotic scarring is also present (Figure). Glial and fibrotic scarring results when pericytes, hypertrophied astrocytes, fibroblast lineage cells, and inflammatory cells form a physical barrier, walling off injured tissue from healthy tissue.31,32 Recent research has shown that both astrocytes and nonastrocyte cells can form a physical and chemical barrier by secreting growth inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) such as neurocan, versican, brevican, phosphacan, and NG2.33 A fibroblast-derived scar can also be located in the perilesional region and is associated with the deposition of inhibitory extracellular matrix molecules. Similar to myelin-associated inhibitors, these molecules act as chemical barriers to the regeneration of axons. CURRENT CLINICAL STRATEGIES Early Surgical Intervention To reduce the effects of cord compression and resultant ischemia, early bony and ligamentous surgical decompression is performed to provide relief from the mechanical pressure. To elucidate the effectiveness of early decompression, a prospective cohort study, The Surgical Treatment of Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study (STASCIS) was conducted with 313 cervical SCI patients.34 After adjusting for confounders, the early decompression group (<24 h after SCI) was 2.8 times as likely to demonstrate an Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) improvement of 2 or more grades at 6 mo after SCI compared with the late decompression group (≥24 h after SCI). A subsequent prospective Canadian cohort study (including cervical, thoracic, and lumbar SCI, n = 84) also revealed that early decompression was associated with a 2 or more grade AIS improvement at the time of rehabilitation facility discharge.35 The findings of these studies support the concept of "Time is Spine" which emphasizes the importance of early diagnosis and intervention to improve long-term outcomes. Central Cord Syndrome Central cord injury is characterized by greater weakness in the upper extremities than the lower extremities, variable sensory loss, variable bowel/bladder dysfunction, and, usually, early rapid improvements in neurological function. Early decompression has traditionally been avoided in cases of central cord injury with patients being allowed to plateau in their recovery over a number of weeks before any intervention.36 However, for patients with pre-existing canal stenosis, recent evidence suggests that early surgery may improve long-term outcomes. A systematic review demonstrated that patients undergoing early decompression (<24 h after SCI) had American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) motor scores that were 6.31 points higher, and a greater chance of improvement in ASIA grade (odds ratio of 2.81) at 12-mo follow-up than those undergoing late decompression (≥24 h after SCI).37 Although the prospective randomized controlled Comparing Surgical Decompression Versus Conservative Treatment in Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury (COSMIC, NCT01367405) trial was initiated in 2013, it was terminated in 2016 due to difficulties in enrolling patients. Blood Pressure Augmentation The neuroprotective effects of blood pressure augmentation act through enhancing systemic perfusion. Several studies have shown that high-normal mean arterial blood pressures (MAPs) of 85 to 90 mm Hg may improve outcomes in SCI patients.38-40 The guidelines of the American Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS) and (CNS) recommend MAP targets of 85 to 90 mm Hg as an option in SCI to be initiated as early as possible and maintained for 7 d after injury.41 This MAP elevation requires invasive blood pressure monitoring, maintenance of slightly hypervolemic state, and central venous access for continuous infusion of vasopressors. A noninferiority trial named Mean Arterial Blood Pressure Treatment for Acute Spinal Cord Injury (MAPS; NCT02232165) comparing MAP ≥ 85 mm Hg and MAP ≥ 65 mm Hg has been developed to assess the efficacy of lower targets. ASIA motor scores at 1 yr postinjury will be evaluated, and this trial is expected to complete in March 2017. Steroids for SCI Methylprednisolone sodium succinate (MPSS) is the only agent from completed clinical trials that has entered clinical use. It acts by reducing oxidative stress to enhance neural cell survival in animal models of traumatic SCI. Three landmark National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Studies (NASCIS) examined the use of MPSS for acute SCI.42-47 Although no neurological benefit in the MPSS-treated group was observed in the overall analyses of these studies, a subgroup analysis in the NASCIS II and III trials demonstrated that use of the drug in a higher dosing regimen than that used in NASCIS I within 8 h of injury resulted in neurological improvement, and that MPSS bolus 3 to 8 h after injury improved neurological function when it was administered for 48 h rather than 24 h.44-47 Recent evidence further supports the use of MPSS for SCI. A 2012 Cochrane meta-analysis and review demonstrated a 4 point greater ASIA motor score improvement in the group that received MPSS for acute SCI and that its administration was not associated with a significant increase in the risk of complications.48 Nevertheless, the 2013 AANS/CNS Section on Disorders of the Spine and Peripheral Nerves guideline provided a level I recommendation against the administration of MPSS which represents a marked change from the previous version despite little change in the evidence considered. Accordingly, an updated AOSpine guideline suggests that 24 h of MPSS IV be administered within 8 h of SCI to patients without medical contraindication.49 Emerging Therapies for SCI Key emerging technologies for SCI treatment include pharmacological approaches, cell-based therapies, biomaterials, and physiological approaches. A summary of these technologies is provided in Table.TABLE: Key Emerging Technologies for Acute SCIPharmacological Approaches Riluzole Riluzole is a benzothiazole antiepileptic which acts via sodium channel blockade. It is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), European Medicines Agency, and Health Canada for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.50,51 Its role in neuroprotection stems from its ability to mitigate excitotoxicity and block sodium influx to neurons in addition to restricting the presynaptic release of glutamate.52 In animal studies, Riluzole has been shown to reduce neuronal loss and cavity size which led to improvements in motor function and electrophysiology.53-55 In the phase I trial for acute SCI was recently completed, and 36 patients were enrolled.56 Although elevations of liver enzyme levels were observed temporarily, no serious adverse events were attributed to the drug. Regarding the neurological outcomes, cervical SCI patients treated with riluzole showed the better improvement in ASIA motor score compared with non-riluzole treated patients matched from an historical registry cohort. The phase II/III RCT entitled riluzole in Spinal Cord Injury Study (RISCIS; NCT01597518) is recruiting patients with acute C4-8 injuries with ASIA grade A, B, or C and will compare riluzole versus placebo and assess AIS, Spinal Cord Independence Measure, and brief pain inventory. This study which was initiated in 2014 has to date recruited 70 patients and is expected to conclude in 2020. Minocycline Minocycline is a second-generation semisynthetic tetracycline antibiotic that has the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier. It also has potent anti-inflammatory properties and inhibits microglial activation, TNF-α, IL-1β, cyclooxygenase-2, and matrix metalloproteinases.57-60 In animal studies, minocycline treatment after acute SCI has been shown to protect against neuron loss and reduce the lesion size.61,62 A phase II study showed that patients with incomplete cervical SCI (n = 25) demonstrated an ASIA score improvement of 14 points with minocycline treatment compared to placebo (P = .05).63 The follow-up Phase III Minocycline in Acute Spinal Cord Injury (MASC; NCT01828203) study will compare IV minocycline for 7 d and is expected to conclude in 2018. VX-210 (Cethrin) The Rho pathway is known to negatively impact axonal and neurite growth.64 A toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, C3 transferase (cethrin), has been shown to inhibit Rho-mediated inhibition of axonal growth which promoted neural regeneration and motor function recovery in rodent SCI models.65 Cethrin is a permeable material intended for application to the dura mater at the site of SCI during decompressive surgery in the acute phase. A phase I/IIa multicenter, dose-escalation human trial evaluating this drug in a human population was published in 201166; no serious adverse events were attributed to the drug.66 Cervical patients treated with 3 mg of cethrin showed improvement in ASIA motor score at 12 mo and this was shown to be superior to historical recovery rates. A phase IIb/III study of cethrin has commenced in cervical SCI patients in 2016 and is expected to conclude in 2018. Anti-Nogo-A antibody (ATI-355) A monoclonal antibody of major inhibitory fractions within CNS myelin, IN-1, has been shown to promote axonal sprouting and functional recovery following SCI in animal models.67 The humanized anti-Nogo antibody, ATI-355, has been shown to promote axonal sprouting and functional recovery following SCI in numerous animal models and is a rare therapeutic in that it has been demonstrated to improve functional outcomes in a primate model.26 A phase I human trial of humanized anti-Nogo antibody (ATI-355) was completed in Europe, rather than the US, as the FDA expressed concerns with the infusion pump. Although this trial has been completed, it has not been published. A phase II study of ATI-355 is about to commence in Europe. Granulocyte Colony Stimulating Factor Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) has been shown to increase the mobilization of bone marrow stromal cells from the bone marrow and to increase their presence at the site of SCI. In a rodent model, G-CSF enhances neurogenesis, reduces apoptosis, and decreases expression of TNF-α and IL-1β. These positive effects are associated with white matter sparing and improved hind-limb function.68 The phase I/IIa trials, which were nonrandomized, showed no increase in serious adverse events with G-CSF administration alongside AIS grade improvement.69,70 G-CSF is currently in a phases III clinical trial in Japan with results expected in 2018. Hepatocyte Growth Factor Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is mainly secreted by mesenchymal cells and promotes cellular growth and motility. HGF enhances neuron survival, decreases lesion size, and reduces oligodendrocyte apoptosis to improve behavioral outcomes in rodent models.71 Moreover, in a primate model of cervical SCI, HGF improved hand dexterity which is one of the most important key functions of the upper limb.72 A phase I/II clinical trial (NCT02193334) comparing intrathecal HGF (KP100IT) versus placebo is now underway with results expected in 2017. Magnesium (AC105) Magnesium is a physiological antagonist of NMDA receptors which decreases excitotoxicity and also functions as an anti-inflammatory agent. Magnesium with polyethylene glycol (PEG) improves cerebrospinal fluid levels without requiring large magnesium doses.73-75 The use of magnesium with PEG in the treatment of animal models of SCI has been shown to enhance tissue sparing and improve motor functional recovery.76,77 However, a phase I/II clinical trial (NCT01750684) of magnesium with PEG (AC105) was terminated in 2015 due to difficulties in enrolling patients. Fibroblast Growth Factor Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) plays a key role in preserving motor neurons adjacent to the SCI site and reduces acute respiratory deficits resulting from the loss of ventral horn neurons by reducing glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in animal models.78,79 Although a phase I/II trial (NCT01502631) of the FGF-analog (SUN13837) has been completed, the results have not been published to date. Cell-Based Therapies Regenerative therapies based on transplanted multipotent and differentiated cells are an exciting therapeutic approach showing promising results in translational studies. Initial research focused on embryonic stem cell lines derived from aborted early-stage embryos, however, ethical considerations and limited numbers of donor cells created challenges. More recently, the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), which can be derived within weeks from any somatic cell source, has revolutionized the field by providing a nearly limitless source of pluripotent cells for research and therapeutic purposes.80 Furthermore, iPSCs can potentially be derived from autologous tissue reducing or eliminating the risk of graft rejection.80 While unforeseen challenges in iPSC technology, such as epigenetic memory and early senescence, have been found, they continue to be a substantial technological advance in spinal cord regeneration.81 The most translationally relevant cell therapies derived from pluripotent stem cells or harvested from adult tissue are discussed cells are known to peripheral regeneration by providing a and support to axons. In rodent models of SCI, have been shown to reduce lesion size, axons, and provide motor The to has a phase trial (n = to assess for patients with chronic AIS grade injuries in the cervical or The study is expected to conclude in 2018. additional phase I trial (n = of derived for AIS grade A injuries has with results expected in ensheathing cells olfactory neurons and provide from and the In animal models of SCI, they have been to enhance neurite outgrowth and resulting in significant functional the are now and for chronic While a meta-analysis of several of these trials (n = no increase in serious adverse efficacy has to be due to concerns within the A previous study showed the of transplanted on from the into the spinal clinical trials of for chronic SCI have been completed and in a meta-analysis which no significant increase in to the stem cells are multipotent tissue cells of into and to repair ability to the and systemic inflammatory led to their application in SCI they were to promote tissue sparing through signaling and of is now a Phase II/III randomized trial of autologous via and intrathecal for patients with AIS grade cervical SCI within 12 mo of The study is expected to conclude in precursor cells are multipotent CNS cells of to astrocytes, and to lost cells and provide are most the central canal of the spinal cord and after however, their numbers are limited of or stem a promising In animal models of cervical and SCI, transplanted have been shown to reduce cystic axons, and improve behavioral outcomes over In 2 phase II trials led by were terminated early due to The studies were the effects of human CNS stem cell for and cervical The results of these trials have not been however, provide evidence that cell are in on emerging it is likely that further to the transplanted cells their will be to enhance motor outcomes. progenitor cells have multipotent to but they to to axons. Several studies have and functional recovery after A phase I/II trial (n = is now underway by to assess with results expected by have the of several of biomaterials with to SCI. These can be with stem cells, to growth and can be to over Moreover, they are being to cavitation with a that the extracellular In rodent biomaterials such as and have been shown to improve and behavioral to clinical Neuro-Spinal Scaffold is a and poly(lactic-co-glycolic currently in phase III trial by n = The trial will the effects of in with AIS grade A injuries and no as a was provided by the FDA this a The study is expected to conclude by Approaches to to via a of has been shown to reduce CNS injury after and These reduce the of the CNS and the systemic inflammatory to SCI, is tissue sparing and improvements in behavioral recovery in the In patients with AIS grade A a study (n = early therapeutic hypothermia to be associated with better neurological A phase II/III trial by the to entitled for Traumatic of the currently The study will assess of initiated within 6 h of injury to both efficacy and treatment is known to be a of the secondary injury Similar to MAP cerebrospinal fluid drainage to improve early spinal cord pressure to reduce the While an initial trial (n = to recent studies have that drainage and MAP augmentation can act to enhance spinal cord blood A phase (n = randomized trial and MAP elevation is now underway to the treatment can improve neurological outcomes for patients with acute AIS grade A, B, or C injuries from The study is expected to conclude in The of SCI research is and findings are being with from SCI clinical To achieve in clinical trials in SCI, the of and to In with to level of injury as as ASIA grade have been in of the clinical trials including the cethrin and riluzole The of SCI is likely to the administration of drugs to mitigate the secondary injury at the acute phase, followed by cell transplantation therapy to regenerate damaged spinal cord tissue from subacute to chronic that the therapeutic discussed in this review and the continuous in and clinical research are a to regenerative for SCI. This is by Canadian of Health AOSpine North in and and The support from the in and Regeneration and the is a for and and a for The other have no or in any of the or in this for this

Physiological analysis reveals that during voluntary contraction Ia afferent input have a lesser facilitatory effect on motor neurons in humans with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury compared with control subjects.

Editor's evaluation: Altered regulation of Ia afferent input during voluntary contraction in humans with spinal cord injury

Motor Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury Enhanced by Strengthening Corticospinal Synaptic Transmission

Spinal cord injury models: neurophysiology.

The purpose of this study was to determine sleep quality and presence of sleep disorders in participants with spinal cord injury (SCI). A web-based survey, available online from February 2011 to July 2013, using validated sleep questionnaires, advertised via the internet and locally through SCI consumer organizations in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, was designed to evaluate sleep in adults with self-reported SCI. Demographic characteristics and medical history were obtained from participant self-report. In our study population, 70% of the 304 participants were male with a mean age of 45 ± 13 years. The mean duration of injury was 16 ± 12 years. Cervical injuries were reported by 49% and thoracic injuries noted in 40% of participants. Increased sleep apnea risk was noted in 31% of participants, with 66% reporting snoring. Insomnia symptoms were reported by 54% of the respondents. Almost 40% of participants ranked their sleep quality as "fairly bad" to "very bad" in the previous month, 29% reported "often" or "almost always" waking up because of pain, and 22% had difficulty falling asleep because of leg cramps. In the past year, 27% of the respondents reported daily uncomfortable leg sensations and 28% found these leg symptoms to be "moderately to extremely distressing." This study increases the awareness that insomnia, sleep apnea, and poor sleep quality are common in individuals with chronic SCI; often coexisting. There is a need for increased screening for sleep problems by healthcare providers taking care of individuals living with SCI.

Our aim was to use 2D convolutional neural networks for automatic segmentation of the spinal cord and traumatic contusion injury from axial T2-weighted MR imaging in a cohort of patients with acute spinal cord injury. Forty-seven patients who underwent 3T MR imaging within 24 hours of spinal cord injury were included. We developed an image-analysis pipeline integrating 2D convolutional neural networks for whole spinal cord and intramedullary spinal cord lesion segmentation. Linear mixed modeling was used to compare test segmentation results between our spinal cord injury convolutional neural network (Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Center segmentation) and current state-of-the-art methods. Volumes of segmented lesions were then used in a linear regression analysis to determine associations with motor scores. Compared with manual labeling, the average test set Dice coefficient for the Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Center segmentation model was 0.93 for spinal cord segmentation versus 0.80 for PropSeg and 0.90 for DeepSeg (both components of the Spinal Cord Toolbox). Linear mixed modeling showed a significant difference between Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Center segmentation compared with PropSeg (P < .001) and DeepSeg (P < .05). Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Center segmentation showed significantly better adaptability to damaged areas compared with PropSeg (P < .001) and DeepSeg (P < .02). The contusion injury volumes based on automated segmentation were significantly associated with motor scores at admission (P = .002) and discharge (P = .009). Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Center segmentation of the spinal cord compares favorably with available segmentation tools in a population with acute spinal cord injury. Volumes of injury derived from automated lesion segmentation with Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Center segmentation correlate with measures of motor impairment in the acute phase. Targeted convolutional neural network training in acute spinal cord injury enhances algorithm performance for this patient population and provides clinically relevant metrics of cord injury.

Retrospective single-center study To determine the long-term outcome of pediatric spinal cord injuries Spinal cord injuries are uncommon events in the pediatric population. In the few large series reported in the literature, recovery of neurologic function was demonstrated after mild injuries but was rare after severe injuries. A total of 4,876 cases of pediatric trauma treated at the Children's Hospital of Los Angeles over a 9-year period (1993-2001) were reviewed. During the study period, 91 cases of spinal cord or spinal column injury were identified, and 30 cases involving a spinal cord injury were identified. Cauda equina injuries were excluded. Seven craniocervical, 12 cervical, 5 thoracic, and 6 thoracolumbar cases were identified. There were 6 cases of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality. Eight of the 30 patients received methylprednisolone at the time of admission. Follow-up ranged from 2 to 54 (mean = 19) months. Twenty patients presented with complete injuries (ASIA grade A). Of these, 7 died, 7 had no neurologic recovery, and 6 experienced neurologic improvement. Five of these six eventually became ambulatory with functional gains occurring over a 4- to 50-week period. None of these 5 patients was found to have spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality. Of the remaining 10 patients (grades B-D), 8 experienced improvements in neurologic function. Cervical dislocation injuries were associated with a low likelihood of neurologic improvement and atlanto-occipital injuries were associated with early death. Recovery of neurologic function following severe traumatic spinal cord injury occurs with a significantly greater incidence in children than adults, and these improvements can occur over a prolonged postinjury period.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is one of the serious central nervous system injuries and the incidence of SCI continues to increase. Previous studies have indicated that electroacupuncture (EA) is beneficial for promoting recovery after SCI. In the present study, we attempted to evaluate how EA can promote the neural repair in SCI model rats by observing changes in the Notch signaling pathway. Experimental rats were randomly divided into four groups. Each group had its own intervention period: 1 day, 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days, and five randomized subgroups: blank control (B) group, blank electroacupuncture (BE) group, sham operation (S) group, model control (M) group and EA group. Animals in the EA group and the BE group were treated with EA at Dazhui (GV14) and Mingmen (GV4) acupoints for 20 min. After the intervention period, the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) score was used to evaluate the neurological function. We found that BBB score increased in EA-treated groups. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was used to observe pathological changes in the injured spinal cord and the results showed that EA therapy could promote the repair of injured spinal cord tissue. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot methods were used to detect the expression of proteins Delta1, Presenilin1, Hes1, and Hes5 in the injured spinal cord. The results showed that the expression levels of Delta1, Presenilin1, Hes1, and Hes5 increased significantly after SCI and decreased after EA treatment. Our study suggested that the possible mechanism by which EA could benefit the recovery after SCI in rats may include inhibiting the Notch signaling pathway and regulating the downstream proteins expression. In addition, our study can provide reference for selecting acupoints and treatment cycle in the treatment of SCI.

Management of Mental Health Disorders, Substance Use Disorders, and Suicide in Adults with Spinal Cord Injury: Clinical Practice Guideline for Healthcare Providers.

Long-lasting and persistent pain is a frequent consequence of spinal cord and brain injury. Several studies point to a significantly high proportion of patients who experience pain following the trauma. This chapter gives a brief overview of the prevalence, types of persistent pain, animal models that study pain outcomes, and the pertinent mechanisms that underlie the development of neuropathic pain following traumatic spinal cord and brain injury.Traumatic brain injury (TBI) and spinal cord injury (SCI) impose a high personal, social, and economic burden of disability. Although not as common as low back pain, TBI and SCI combined might have an equivalent economic impact mainly because of the young age of patients, the severity of the associated disability, and the major limitations on daily activity (Ma et al., 2014). Research-based estimates of the prevalence of persistent pain are variable and high in patients with SCI and TBI. Most studies indicate that about two-thirds of patients with either SCI or TBI will experience pain after the injury (Nampiaparampil, 2008; Siddall et al., 2003; Stormer et al., 1997; Uomoto and Esselman, 1993). Pain is consistently rated as one of the most difficult problems associated with these types of injuries (Nepomuceno et al., 1979; Rintala et al., 1998; Stensman, 1994; Westgren and Levi, 1998), hinders the ability to participate in rehabilitation programs (Widerstrom-Noga et al., 1999), and is difficult to treat. Chronic pain delays the acquisition of an optimal level of activity (Nicholson Perry et al., 2009) and independence and adversely affects the patients’ mood (Kennedy et al., 1997; Stroud et al., 2006).This chapter reviews and summarizes both clinical and experimental studies that focus on chronic pain after TBI and SCI. The emphasis will be in particular on the prevalence of chronic pain in patients with TBI and SCI. We highlight the specific types of pain that occur after injury. A survey of the different experimental animal models of brain and spinal cord injury evaluating pain as an outcome will be discussed. Finally, we will address the mechanisms responsible for the development of chronic pain following SCI and TBI.

Previous studies have demonstrated changes in urinary bladder neurotrophic factors after bladder dysfunction. We have hypothesized that retrograde transport of neurotrophin(s) from the bladder to lumbosacral dorsal root ganglia (DRG) may play a role in bladder reflex reorganization after spinal cord injury (SCI). In this study, we determined whether the expression of tyrosine kinase receptors (TrkA, TrkB) is altered in lumbosacral DRG after SCI through immunofluorescence techniques. Complete transection of the spinal cord (T8-T10) was performed in female Wistar rats (120-150 g), and animals were studied 5-6 weeks after SCI. One week before killing, Fast Blue (FB) was injected into the bladder to label bladder afferent cells in the L1, L2, L6, and S1 DRG. After SCI, a significant increase in the number of TrkA-immunoreactive (IR) positive cells was detected in the L6-S1 DRG (L6: 1.9-fold, P < or = 0.01; S1: 1.7-fold, P < or = 0.05) and in the L1 DRG (3.0-fold; P < or = 0.01) but not in the L4-L5 DRG compared with spinal-intact (control) rats. After SCI, a significant increase in the number of TrkB-IR cells was also detected in the L6-S1 DRG (L6: 2.2-fold, P < or = 0.01; S1: 1.5-fold, P < or = 0.05) and in the L1-L2 DRG (L1: 1.5-fold, P < or = 0.01; L2: 1.3-fold, P < or = 0.05) but not in the L4-L5 DRG compared with control rats. After SCI, the percentage of FB-labeled cells expressing TrkA immunoreactivity (approximately 68%) or TrkB immunoreactivity (approximately 65%) in L1 and L6 DRG significantly (P < or = 0.01) increased compared with control (20-30%) DRG. After SCI, the percentage of TrkA-IR cells expressing phosphorylated (p)-Trk immunoreactivity significantly increased (1.5- to 2.3-fold increase) in the L1, L6, and S1 DRG. The percentage of TrkB-IR cells expressing p-Trk immunoreactivity after SCI also increased (1.3-fold increase) in the L1 and L6 DRG. These results demonstrate that (1) TrkA and TrkB immunoreactivity is increased in bladder afferent cells after SCI and (2) TrkA and TrkB receptors are phosphorylated in DRG after SCI. Neuroplasticity of lower urinary tract reflexes after SCI may be mediated by both nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor.