Liberation or Assimilation: The Paradox of Female Agency in Ahdaf Soueif’s In the Eye of the Sun

The role adolescent boys play in premarital sexual activities, gender power relations, and the reproductive health risks they are exposed to, has received little attention in research. This qualitative study has aimed to explore Zambian male adolescents' perceptions and expectations about premarital sexual relationships. Seven focus group discussions were conducted between November 2000 and May 2001, in George and Chimwemwe compounds, with 53 boys aged 15 to 19. The findings reveal that adolescent premarital sexual relationships are common and considered by many boys as a prerequisite to achieving an adult male's autonomy and status. The boys viewed themselves as the privileged gender, with greater freedom than girls, and were the major decision-makers on sexual matters in relationships. The results indicate that traditional values and stereotypical gender roles continue to influence Zambian boys' male identity. However, a sense of ambiguity among the boys on issues of gender imbalance in premarital relationships indicates a potential and preparedness to break with traditional trends — a true challenge for public health priorities and interventions.

The major purpose of this study was to find what attitudes young people-students attending a state university in the Midwest in particular-hold toward premarital sex relations. More specifically the study was designed to seek answers to the following questions: [(1)] What are the attitudes of young people toward premarital sex relations with their anticipated marital partners and with others? [(2)] Are the expressed attitudes of young people toward premarital sex relations influenced by their having had this experience? [(3)] What motivates young people in having premarital sex relations? [4)] What effect does pre-marital sexual intercourse have on a couples relationship? [(5)] What are the reasons young people give for refraining from premarital relations? The data presented were obtained by an anonymous questionnaire given to unmarried students enrolled in introductory and advanced courses in sociology and social work at the University of Wisconsin-Milkaukee in the fall semester of 1957. The questionnaire was given to 182 students in a regular class session. To assure anonymity each student was instructed to deposit his questionnaire in a sealed box provided for this purpose. The questionnaire was completed by all of the students 60 men and 122 women. (excerpt)

Background:Premarital sexual relationships could harm youth’s health in terms of sexually transmitted infections or increased risk of unprotected sexual behaviors. Sexual abstinence has been recommended to prevent young adolescents from adverse outcomes of premarital sexual relationships.Objectives:The aim of this study was to explore the viewpoints of sexually active single women about premarital sexual relationships in the Iranian context.Patients and Methods:In this qualitative study, we recruited 41 young women aged 18 to 35 years. Data were collected using focus group discussions and individual interviews. We employed conventional content analysis to analyze the data. Multiple data collection methods, maximum variation sampling, and peer checks were applied to enhance the reliability of the findings.Results:Eight themes emerged from the data analysis: ‘acceptance of sexual contact in the context of opposite-sex relationships, ‘sexual activity as a guarantee for keeping the boyfriend in the relationship’, ‘premarital sexual relationship as an undeniable personal right’, ‘having successful marriage in spite of premarital sexual relationships’, ‘virginity as an old fashioned phenomenon’, ‘love as a license for premarital sexual behaviors’, ‘goal-oriented relationship as a license for premarital sexual behaviors’, and ‘experiencing premarital sexual relationships in order to gain perfection’.Conclusions:Results of this study could be applied to designing interventions, such as promotion of preventive beliefs or educational programs regarding premarital sexual relationships in conservative societies. These interventions could start within families and continue at schools and universities.

Despite social, cultural and religious prohibitions on premarital sexual relationships in Iran, some evidence suggests that premarital heterosexual relationships and sex among young people may be increasing, but no study has been conducted which gives a comprehensive picture of perceived societal norms, attitudes, sexuality and the nature and process of heterosexual relationships among unmarried young females in Iran. This study aimed to investigate and compare the views and conduct of young female college students with perceived societal norms. The objectives included; exploring sexual norms and attitudes, assessing the social and individual factors responsible for variation in norms, attitude, and behaviour of female college students and finally exploring the process and circumstances of sexual behaviour. Complementary qualitative and survey methods were used. The qualitative research includes 4 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 30 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs). FGDs explored societal norms on pre-marital sexuality, while IDIs explored more personal attitudes and behaviours in greater depth. The survey was conducted in 2005-6 on a sample of 1743 female undergraduate students in four multidisciplinary universities in Tehran. A self-administered questionnaire was applied. This study revealed an ambiguity with regard to social acceptability of premarital heterosexual relationships, while sexual contact before marriage was perceived as socially proscribed. Personal attitudes were considerably more tolerant of such premarital relationships and sex than societal norms. These findings suggest that traditional norms on heterosexual relationships are eroding among young people. Within this complex attitudinal context, nearly half of unmarried women reported premarital friendships with men and more than one-fifth reported any type of sex (23%). Low self-efficacy, peers' liberal norms on virginity, older age, parents' liberal attitude and poor family relationships were predictors of ever having sexual contact. Qualitative findings showed that gender double-standards dictate restrictions for women, but permit sexual licence for men and owing to men's preference for a virgin bride, most relationships which involve sex are unlikely to result in marriage. Therefore although young people have adopted some liberal values in their premarital relationships their marriage still follows traditional and cultural values. These results have implications for programmes designed to improve young people's reproductive health in Iran.

ABSTRACTBackground:Youth’s sexual behaviors have various consequences such as unwanted pregnancy, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and sexually transmitted infections. Little information is available about the impact of mass media in the development of premarital sexual relationships. This study aimed to explore the role of mass media on premarital sexual relationships among Iranian youth.Methods: This qualitative study was conducted with 26 single boys and girls aged 18-24 years who were living in Isfahan, Iran and have already been started their sexual relationships. Also, 12 other participants who were involved in such an experience were recruited in this study. Data was collected using semi-structured interviews and the observation of youth’s sexual interactions in different fields. Conventional content analysis method was used for data analysis. Results: Three main categories were developed: “foreigner media as the role model”, “the ease of access to sexual contents and materials” and “the ease of interactions and relationships with the opposite sex”. Conclusion:The prominent role of mass media in the formation of premarital sexual relationships was described in this study. This issue needs to be taken into consideration by policy makers for taking necessary actions for reducing the impact of mass media on the youth’s engagement in premarital sexual relationships.

Adolescence is a stage in life that is considered very turbulent as the psychological and physiological changes that accompany this period predispose young people to risky sexual behaviour. Therefore, finding out factors that predict sexual behaviour among this group is an important issue for research. It is against this backdrop that this study was designed to investigate psychological predictors of premarital sexual relationships among in-school adolescents in a western Nigerian city. The descriptive survey research design was adopted in the study. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 675 respondents for the study although analysis was based on the 643 questionnaires that were returned from the field and found useful for analysis. Data was collected using a self-developed and modified instrument from standardized scales. The questionnaire was examined for reliability using the Cronbach alpha which yielded 0.81 coefficients. On the spot administration technique was used to collect data and the generated data were analysed using inferential statistics of regression models at 0.05 alpha level. The findings of the study showed that all the psychological variables investigated were found to significantly predict premarital sexual relationships among the respondents. Findings showed that self-esteem (R = 0.290, Adj. R2 = 0.080, F(1,641)= 19.508, p = 0.000<0.05), self-efficacy (R = 0.290, Adj. R2 = 0.080, F(1,641) = 19.508, p = 0.000<0.05), and attitude towards premarital sex (R = 0.290, Adj. R2 = 0.080, F(1,641) = 19.508, p = 0.000<0.05) significantly predicted premarital sexual relationships among the respondents. It was therefore concluded that modifying psychological factors of self-esteem, self-efficacy and attitude towards premarital sex can be effective in regulating involvement in premarital sexual relationships among in-school adolescents in the city. Scaling up the level of school counseling especially in the area of sexual adjustment and modification of the psychological variables investigated were recommended.

This study is based on interviews with a sample of 400 single women aged 18-25 years from the Fante ethnic group in Cape Coast, Ghana, in 1991, and on focus groups. This case study illustrates the importance of economic and living arrangement support expected from partners in premarital relationships. Support may be for living and maintenance ('chopmoney', provisions, household items, and rent); for financial security (provision of capital); and for clothing and hairdressing. Women did not always require economic support in premarital relationships. Women expect boyfriends to provide 'chopmoney' (money for food and general upkeep) and contribute some money for the rent. Only 36% of sexually active women expected their boyfriends to supply food provisions. Premarital sexual relationships are used to obtain start-up capital. The author refers to evidence that senior government officials engaged in sexual transactions with clients before loans and credit facilities were offered. 87% of sexually experienced women expected their partners to pay for at least part of clothing expenses. The study revealed that there was considerable disparity between women's expectations and actual receipt of economic support. 56% desired, but only 36% received, 'chopmoney' in full. 40% expected their partners to pay for household furnishings in full, while only 10% did so. 55% expected capital, but only 15% received it. The three most frequently received benefits in full were hair dressing, shoes, and dresses. Men provided most non-negotiable items as a means of "boosting their egos." Many young women rely on the support of men in order to improve their status. Ghanaian men control financial resources and economic power. Mothers of adolescent daughters encourage premarital sexual behavior. Prostitution is considered different from sexual exchange relationships. It is argued that gender inequalities and domestic abuse are perpetuated through sexual exchange relationships.

In Ghana the knowledge about the sexual lives of people has been primarily derived from anthropological studies. Traditionally most communities in the north approved premarital sexual relations (often women were pregnant at the start of their 1st conjugal union among the Kokomba) however in the south there were stiff legal and religious sanctions against them (even death among the Akans for sex before the puberty rites). The existing sexual practices and behavior of most ethnic groups in southern Ghana is examined. The exchange of gifts during courtship used to be for compliment rather than for reciprocal sexual favors. The exchange theory holds that in modern Ghanian society the phenomenon of gift-giving has become obligatory for sexual relationships as a source of income especially in urban areas with economic pressures on low-status women. They receive gifts also to supplement their wages or pay for school fees and may have more than 1 partner at a time. The previous traditional codes were relaxed after colonialization urbanization and monetization with the result that premarital sexual relationships are condoned. Safe sex through learning about the sexual history of the partner is not feasible because companionship and revealing information between partners is not the rule in a male-dominated society. Female autonomy is increasing in urban areas. Commitment to partner is vital for the prevention of HIV infection. Among the Akan commitment is high but the Tallensi and Kokomba are permissive. AIDS prevention policies have to recognize that the sexual behavior of various communities is disparate and data on the premarital sexual relationships of the rural population is scant as most anthropological study was focused on urban women. Sexual networking interpersonal sexual scripting and the change of young women to new transactional sexual behavior has to be researched for AIDS education programs.

The world’s sensitivities about having Premarital Sexual (PMS) relationships, regardless of marriage, are changing. The lack of a coherent program in sex education has led to the establishment and formation of misconceptions and misinformation among adolescents. The purpose of this questionnaire-based study is to prepare a Comprehensive Sex Education (CSE) protocol for psycho-religious-based CSE and determine its effectiveness in reducing the tendency toward PMS. This research was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest control group design. The sample includes all 15 to 18-year-old girls in Mashhad who participated in this workshop voluntarily in 2019-2020. The participants were assigned randomly to either the test or control group (15 individuals per group). To collect data, the Premarital Relationship Attitude Questionnaire (PRAQ) (Mobredi et al., 2018) was used. The test group, along with regular medical care, received CSE for 9 weekly sessions of 100 minutes (5 hours per week) (from September up to the end of November 2019) in the private clinic of the psychology of Mashhad. The control group received only regular medical care in this period. Participants in both groups responded to the PRAQ before intervention (pretest) and immediately after the intervention (posttest). Results of analysis of covariance showed that after statistically controlling the effect of the pretest, a significant difference was found between the test and control group in terms of the PMS (P < 0.05). Moreover, the effectiveness of the variables of the method of obtaining information, the birth order, and the quality of family relationships on the tendency toward PMS was confirmed. These findings suggest that the use of psycho-religious-based CSE has reduced the tendency toward PMS in girls.

This paper attempts to account for the strong, positive correlation between partner involvement and contraceptive behavior in premarital sexual relationships. Interpersonal and structural characteristics of partner involvement identified in previous research as possible explanatory variables were factor analyzed and three major dimensions were isolated: 1. affection and commitment, 2. sexual and contraceptive communication, and 3. predictability of intercourse. Partner involvement loaded highest on the affect factor. In a multiple regression analysis using composite (factor) scores, prior sex-related communication emerged as the strongest predictor of contraceptive behavior, followed by affection for partner; contrary to expectations, however, predictability of intercourse was not significantly related to contraceptive use.

Basing on the age groups like, the last age, the first age group, and the marriage age, the proportion of the youth who get involved in premarital sexual relationship is evidently increasing from year to year. This has led to the emergence of various problems connected with unprotected sexuality and reproductive health of the youth. Up to 76.1 percent cases of premarital sexual activities were first carried out between age limits 21-71 years. Most of them involved students of high school and tertiary institutions. There is a tendency that the higher the level of education, the higher will be the degree of permissiveness towards premarital sexual relationship. Most of the new marriages involve pregnant cases of between 3-6 months. The proportion of premarital sex cases is higher in the urban areas compared to the rural areas.

Globalization through free flow of information, free market economy, satellite channels, internet etc. has made the world global village on the other hand global pillage. Modernization thinkers argue People’s mind or thinking has been globalized through free flow of information; people’s taste, choice, habit, life style etc. have been globalized through satellite channels, newspapers, magazines, movies, serials etc. On the other hand dependency thinkers argue, globalization is a new form of exploitation like neoliberalization and neocolonization. In the colonial era, imperial countries directly accumulated from third world countries through colonization but globalization has brought neocolonialism causes developed western countries to be centre and rest of the world to be peripheries. According to Akande (2002), Globalization has resulted in the extinction of 22,000 indigenous cultures in the past decade and optimistic estimates suggests that as many as 90% of the world's languages will disappear in the next century. Satellite Television is the powerful media to reach at the public audience regardless of age, sex, income or education level across nations. In addition, it presents sight and sound. Due to availability of low price television and cable network, middle class and lower class peoples’ viewership have been rapidly increased in Bangladesh. Hindi serials are mostly popular among girls and women. They eagerly wait to see the serials. Young people are mostly accustomed to see Hindi movies and Kolkata, Panjabi, Tamil movies too. They are preferring Hindi movies, serials etc. to Bangla movie, drama, serials etc. Children are seeing Hindi cartoon too. These Hindi movies, serials, cartoons have large impact to the human behavior, culture and language. People are viewing other world and other way of life. They are silently encompassing other behavior, language and overall culture. Culture is the representation of the country’s identity. Satellite television undermines the national identity and overrides the local traditions. For Bangladesh, the significant cultural shift arises due to the impact of satellite TV. Indian channels like Zee TV, MTV, Star Plus, Sony TV serials are influencing the cultural sphere of Bangladesh. Through watching these channels, family ties and family values are getting threatened; specifically materials that favor divorce as a means to solve family problems or programming that includes obscenity, nudity, arousal of sexual instincts, or premarital sexual relations, extramarital affairs are completely destroying the cultural beliefs and values of Bangladesh. Hindi movies and serials have impacts on fashion, clothing and fast food consumption. Labib (2001) stated that there is no solid evidence yet to prove the influence of satellite television, but he does not deny the anecdotal evidence to suggest an influence on women and girls in fields such as fashion, clothing as well as fast food consumption. Kewwords: Hindi film, Hindi serial, Bangladeshi culture, Cultural aggression.

This paper investigates the extent to which being born to a single mother affects a child’s survival rate in Senegal, a context where girls’ premarital sexual relationships are still widely stigmatized. It also examines whether any negative effect persists up to affecting the survival rate of children of higher birth order born after the mother has married. Using data from Demographic and Health Survey, we find that the mortality rate is higher for first-born boys, but not for first-born daughters, whose mother was single at the time of their birth, and lower for second-born children whose sister, but not brother, was born out of wedlock. The latter effect is actually driven by children from older cohorts of women. Therefore, strategies to mitigate the negative consequences of the stigma associated with a premarital birth seem to exist but vary with the gender of the child born premarital in Senegal. In addition, persisting negative effects appear to have decreased over time. Potential channels through which boys born from a single mother are at a higher risk of death in the country are discussed. Overall, our findings indicate that social programs targeting single mothers, especially when they gave birth to a boy, would help avoiding dramatic events as the death of a child.

Sexual perception refers to the attitudes, expectations, beliefs, and values associated with sexual behaviors. Adolescents’ sexual behaviors is affected by the knowledge, attitudes, values, beliefs, and social norms in their society. In this respect, the sexual perception of adolescents can be studied from a cultural perspective. The present study was designed to identify factors affecting Iranian adolescent girls’ perceptions of premarital sexual relationships. A qualitative study was conducted using a conventional content analysis approach. Data was collected using in-depth unstructured interviews with 18 adolescents recruited through purposive sampling. Data analysis resulted in the development of a primary main theme, meaning and value of sexual self-care, and three main categories: significant others, sexual norms, and attitudes, and perceived risks. Overall, findings of the present study revealed that the sexual perceptions of Iranian adolescent girls motivated them to abstain from premarital sexual relationships. However, apart from the perceived double standards involved in social norms and attitudes identified in the study, the presence of a conflict caused by their families, schools, and peers necessitated the importance of establishing and consolidating parent-adolescent communication about sexual issues. Findings of this study point to the need for appropriate sexual education for adolescents and parents to promote adolescent sexual literacy and health.

Though European colonialism had a profound and lasting impact on the development of contemporary Africa, there are few studies that assess these effects empirically. This study explores one facet of the colonial legacy: ethnic conflict. Despite the pervasiveness of ethnic strife across the continent, grievance-based approaches have had only limited success in modeling ethnic conflict in Africa. Using a structural approach, we argue that the distinctive colonial styles of the British and French created fundamentally different systems of ethnic stratification, which left contrasting legacies for post-colonial ethnic conflict. Specifically, the indirect, decentralized rule of the British fostered an unranked system of ethnic stratification, while the legacy of the centralized French style approximated a ranked system. Because unranked systems foster competition between ethnic groups - which can readily spiral into conflict - we posit that the British colonial legacy is positively related to both the frequency and intensity of ethnic conflict. French colonies, on the other hand, were left with a centralized bureaucratic power structure that impeded ethnic mobilization and suppressed nonviolent ethnic challenges. Using the Minorities at Risk III dataset, we first compare the ethnic struggles faced across former British and French colonies. Next we test the impact of this colonial legacy on two facets of ethnic conflict, rebellious actions and civil war. Results indicate that, after controlling for other salient factors, a British colonial legacy is positively associated with ethnic conflict.