Leisure and self-care for Dalit women in India

This paper explores the complex social and literary narratives that functioned in the name of the Dalit woman in late colonial north India. It does so by scrutinizing a literary genre of the period, namely didactic literature and domestic manuals in Hindi, which principally addressed themselves to middle class, high caste Hindu women. However, this paper examines ways in which Dalit women got represented in this literature, as that became a potent ground for identity formation and social positioning for upper caste Hindus. The Dalit woman here was not just a footnote, but a constitutive footnote, perceived in a binary opposition to the upper caste woman. In different ways this literature and the material culture around it was involved with a gendered casteist discourse committed to constructing, and in fact institutionalizing, stable categories of pativratas (ideal wives) and kutnis (vamps). Through the lens of representation, this paper attempts to highlight the grave mismatch between rhetoric and reality. Further, an exploration of this genre reveals that the representation of women was sharply divided along caste and class lines, reinforcing not just a caste hierarchy but a female hierarchy among upper caste and Dalit women.

Dalit women are the most deprived and discriminated sections in caste-based Indian society. They have been victimized through the structural hierarchy of caste which perpetuated the ethos of inequality and maintains the segregation of power. In every sphere of life, they are in a pitiable position, worse off than the upper caste women. Dalit women not only suffer gender discrimination and economic deprivation, but also suffer from discrimination and disabilities in connection with caste. The Indian feminist discourse does not cover the aspect of caste and its interface with gender. This paper seeks to investigate the assertion of dalit women :Y organizations both at the national and regional levels, and the main dalit standpoint which has emerged from a dialogue between the practices and struggles of dalit women and the works dalit feminist intellectuals.

Dalit literature in India has been playing a very important role in acquainting readers with Dalits’ world of suffering, oppression, and resistance. This research paper explores the complex interplay of gender and caste in the selected short stories from Sharankumar Limbale’s short story collection, The Dalit Brahmins and Other Stories (2018). The paper focuses on short stories, “Ratna”, “Madhavi”, “Soni” and “Niloo”. Through a comparative analysis of these narratives, the paper highlights how the characters’ experiences are shaped by their caste identities and societal roles. Ratna and Soni, representing lower-caste Dalit women, have to live a life of oppression, violence, and societal neglect, while Madhavi and Niloo, as upper-caste women, embody privilege yet remain complicit in perpetuating caste hierarchies. The stories illustrate the clear contrasts in their lived realities, revealing how caste influences their bodies, autonomy, and relationships. The paper critically examines the ‘lived experiences’ of these women, whose bodies become contested terrains in a socio-cultural landscape rife with systemic inequalities. The paper explores the symbolism of the female body as a site of cultural meaning, where upper-caste women are often idealised and protected, while Dalit women face objectification and exploitation. By examining Limbale’s heart-rending storytelling, the paper contributes to the discourse on gender equality and social justice, highlighting the urgent need to address the systemic oppression faced by women in a casteist society. Through this analysis, the paper aims to illuminate the broader implications of caste-based discrimination and its impact on gender dynamics in contemporary India.

The conceptualisation of masculinity in the traditional sense has been viewed as a complex mix of attitudes, behaviours, and abilities (powers) possessed by diverse groups of individuals. It is supposed that neither these sets nor the individuals who compose them have remained consistent across time and among societies. In this paper, I will be exploring the varying degrees of masculinity that is exhibited by men of different communities portrayed in Tamil Karisal literature. Gender relations are also defined along the lines of Caste and status. ‘Karisal’ meaning ‘black soil’ encompasses the arid regions of Southern Tamil Nadu and Karisal literature depicts the lives of the people living in such regions. Traditional traits of masculinity such as being valiant, dominant, and knowledgeable is more expected from the upper caste men whereas such traits are not encouraged among men belonging to the marginalised sections of the rural Karisal landscape. This paper will also look at how gender relations exist between the men and women of both dominant and lower castes in the Karisal region. It can also be noted how virtues associated with femineity such as chastity, subordination and obedience are expected from upper caste women who do not cross household boundaries but Dalit women, out of economic necessities, are made to work as agricultural labourers in the fields and are prone to being harassed by men of all castes. For this study, the texts for analysis are short stories from Along with the Sun (2020) compiled by Ki. Rajanarayanan and the novel Koogai (2015) written by Cho Dharman.

The Indian society is one of the most unequal societies of the world and divided into different social hierarchies of caste, class, religion, etc. Caste is a determinant of power, economic inequality, poverty and discrimination in contemporary India. When it comes to women, they face the dual burden of discrimination, first gender based and, second, caste based. The practice of discrimination persists between Dalit/tribal and upper-class women, but still, Dalit women are trying to come out of this unequal treatment. Hence, this study investigates the magnitude of discrimination among women workers in terms of the social hierarchy and relative factors responsible for workforce discrimination. Furthermore, this study examines the extent of wage differential between Dalit/tribal and upper-class women workers. The study has used the data of the 50th Employment and Unemployment Survey to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) from 1993–1994 to 2017–2018 by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). In the first part of the analysis, this study explains how and why the women workforce is decreasing, particularly as far as Dalit/tribal women are concerned. Subsequently, the relative contributions of socio-economic conditions in the women workforce have been assessed using logistic regression. However, the second part of the study examines the wage differential between general and Dalit/tribal women and the extent of wage discrimination using the Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition method. The study reveals that the women workforce has been consistently declining and the vulnerability is intense among Dalit/tribal women. Furthermore, it has been observed that the social hierarchy (caste) is a decisive factor for the remuneration (wage) in the labour market and over the period of study, the wage discrimination between Dalit and upper-caste women has significantly increased.

A study was carried out the domestic violence against Dalit women of Kalika, of Pokhara Metropolitan City, Gandaki Province, Nepal. Domestic violence is a social issue of inquiry. In this context, this study was made a comprehensive effort to explore the forms, factors and consequences of married Dalit women in the study area. Twenty victim women were chosen as respondents for this study. Using different tools for data collection like in-depth interview, observation as well as different sources of secondary data. this study was more guided by Marxist feminism and more qualitative. There are so many incidences of domestic violence against Dalit and vulnerable married women that blocked the progress and prosperity. Unfortunately, women are even neglected by their husbands and in-laws and their families. Study found that majority of husbands' alcoholic habit, their feeling of superiority, patriarchal social structure, re-marriage and extramarital affair were the main reasons that kept women as victims of the society. Physical, psychological and unwanted sexual abuse of husband, along with unproductive engagement of women in household activities, unwanted pregnancy and deprivation of various needs are major areas of women's subordination among the Dalit married women.

Inter-group disparity in India is multifaceted; this paper focuses on gender and caste as two important indicators of disadvantage. An assessment of the contemporary state of the gender-caste overlap suggests that the economic condition of women continues to be defined and constrained by their caste status. At the same time, the traditional distinction between lower caste and upper caste women, based on the relative egalitarianism and greater freedom of movement of the latter, needs to be revised. The Dalit (low caste) women are the worst off, as they belong to a group that is materially at the bottom of the ladder; their relative deprivation is compounded by low levels of autonomy and greater exposure to domestic violence.

The identity of women cannot be seen in isolation but as one that exists along with other constituents that intersect with class, race, sexuality and caste. Being a woman, a person is already at periphery and adding caste to it makes her more vulnerable. Thus, Dalit women are more subjugated in Indian society whether it is about leading a normal life or availing reproductive health services. This study primarily draws from a Dalit feminist perspective to understand the subjectivity and nuisances of the Dalit women who avail reproductive health services. While availing reproductive health services, the sort of discrimination the Dalit women face are denial in providing reproductive health services, creation and observation of distance from the Dalit women by the health practitioners and promotion of privatization of healthcare services. The study is based on qualitative research design which includes participant observation, in which a total of 27 married women were selected for the in-depth interview; among them, 16 women were from the Dalit community and 9 women were from the so-called upper caste community. This study was conducted in 2015 between February and April in Mau district of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India.

The identity of women cannot be seen in isolation but one that exists along with other constituents that intersects with class, race, sexuality and caste also. Being a woman, a person is already at periphery, adding caste to it makes more vulnerable. Thus, Dalit women are more subjugated in Indian society whether it is about leading a normal life or availing reproductive health services. This study primarily draws from a Dalit feminist perspective to understand the subjectivity and nuisances of the Dalit women who avail reproductive health services. While availing reproductive health services, the sort of discrimination the Dalit women face are denial in providing reproductive health services, creating and observing distance with the Dalit women by the health practitioners, and also promotion of privatization of healthcare services. The study is based on qualitative research design basically, participant observation, in which the total 27 married women were selected for the in-depth interview, among them 16 women were from the Dalit community and 9 women were from the so-called upper caste community. This research was conducted from February to April 2015 in Mau district of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India.

Feminist movements and Dalit feminist movement in India are mainly based on the experience of Repression and gender discrimination. Patriarchy, gender disparity and sexual violence are the basic reasons for these movements and they also find place prominently in the writings of Dalit women as they have come forward to write their experiences from women's point of view around 1980s. Baby Kamble, Urmila Pawar in Marathi, Geeta Nagabhushan in Kannada, P. Shivakami, Bama in Tamil have got national level consideration. Dalit women were raped; insulted and abused by the upper caste people. They are insecure in the society as they have been exploited on the various levels. This feeling of insecurity of the Dalit women is the central theme of their writings. These women writers have come forward to express their ideas, their experiences in social violence as well as in domestic violence and thus they protest their traditional existence with anger and anguish. Geeta Nagabhushan’s dalit novels, Barna’s Sangati (2005), P. Shivakani's Grip of Change (2006) are initial important writings of dalit feminism; Datit feminism writing is different from the conventional way of Feminist writing. Their experiences, expression, method of narration are extremely different from the upper caste women writers. It is found that every woman in the world has been degraded to second grade citizenship. The Dalit women in India suffer more due to their Dalit identity.

In India, caste endogamy is a social norm, and violation leads to violence against men and women in inter-caste marriage. The study explores Dalit women’s experiences of negotiation in hypergamous inter-caste marriages. Intersectionality and Dalit feminism inform the analysis of caste, class and gender in urban India. ‘Urbanity’ defines how ‘urban’ shapes experiences. The study is qualitative, involving in-depth interviews with five upwardly mobile urban Dalit women married to upper-caste men. The paper focuses on three phases: pre-marital, wedding event and post-marriage negotiations. The study shows that in the pre-marital phase, while pursuing an inter-caste marriage in the family, the financial independence of the male and ‘upwardly mobile urban educated’ status of participants were enabling factors. A religious ceremony was crucial for participants to give social recognition to the marriage. Post-marriage negotiations were observed in changing surnames, food and cultural practices and socialization of children. The study shows that intersecting identities of caste, class, gender and urbanity shaped everyday negotiations, and participants were trying to create space for a positive Dalit identity to be recognized and respected in their families.

The study found that Dalit women are facing discrimination in the payment of wages. They are not equally paid to both men and women. Hence, it is suggested that the government should take necessary steps to equal wages to both men and women. The study found that income generation under the MGNREGS was meager. This is due to the low wage rate. Hence, it is suggested that the wage rate should be a hike from Rs.121 to Rs.200 per day as the inflation rate has gone up. Also suggested to link this with market wage rate and make changes accordingly. It is found that most of the Dalit women faced problems in getting employment under the MGNREGS. There are problems at the time of applying for job cards, at the time of issuing job cards, problems in informing about employment, problems in the payment of wages, political involvement, etc. Hence, it is suggested that online facility should be arranged to apply an issue of job cards.

Background: This study focuses on Pecola Breedlove, an African American girl, and Fulmaya Badi, a Dalit woman from Nepal’s Badi community, to explore how intersecting systems of racism, casteism, patriarchy, and poverty produce double marginalization. Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye and Bibek Ojha’s Ailani expose how racial and caste hierarchies, reinforced by gendered oppression and social exclusion, destroy women’s dignity, identity, and agency across distinct cultural contexts. Method: The paper employs a comparative literary analysis informed by intersectionality, Black feminist theory, postcolonial feminism, and Dalit feminist thought. Through these frameworks, it analyzes how internalized racism in Pecola and caste-based patriarchy in Fulmaya represent structural violence that silences and subjugates women. Findings: The study reveals that both novels depict oppression not as isolated experiences but as systemic and institutionalized practices that deny women autonomy and self-worth. Despite geographical and cultural differences, Pecola and Fulmaya experience similar mechanisms of dehumanization and exclusion embedded within their societies. Conclusion: Understanding the lives of doubly marginalized women requires an intersectional lens that connects race, caste, gender, and class as interlocking systems of domination. The study underscores the necessity of inclusive feminist literary criticism that amplifies subaltern voices and challenges hierarchies of power across cultures. Novelty: By bridging African American and Dalit feminist discourses, this research offers a transnational perspective on intersectional oppression, demonstrating how literature functions as a form of resistance that reclaims silenced narratives and envisions transformative justice.

In the oppressive intersection of caste, gender, and class in India, the Dalit female body has long been marked by violence, exploitation, and erasure. Yet, in Mahasweta Devi’s seminal works Dopdi and Douloti the Bountiful, the female body does not remain a passive site of suffering—it is transformed into a powerful locus of resistance. This paper examines how Devi’s protagonists, Dopdi and Douloti, subvert their socially inscribed oppression by reclaiming bodily autonomy and refusing victimhood. Devi’s narratives expose the deeply entrenched systems of caste patriarchy that attempt to discipline Dalit and tribal women’s bodies through violence, rape, and control—practices illuminated by Foucault’s theories of power and discipline (Foucault; Holdrege). However, Dopdi’s defiant nakedness post-rape and Douloti’s haunting embodiment of bonded labor rupture these structures of power, making their bodies sites of agency and resistance rather than mere vessels of oppression. By foregrounding the embodied resistance of these women, Devi challenges the societal norms that seek to render Dalit and tribal women invisible, both socially and politically. This reading situates Devi’s work within a broader discourse of subaltern resistance (Guha), feminist body politics (Kristeva; Irigaray; Cixous), and Dalit studies (Bama; Limbale; Govinda). The narratives reflect how Dalit and tribal women’s bodies, often policed and demeaned, become tools of confrontation against the dual tyranny of caste and patriarchy. Furthermore, this analysis highlights the evolving solidarity politics among Dalit women and the broader anti-caste feminist movement, which reclaims their bodies not as stigmatized sites but as powerful emblems of liberation and social justice (Paik; Govinda; Samantaray). Ultimately, Devi’s Dopdi and Douloti invite readers to reimagine the Dalit female body not as an object of upper-caste disgust and control, but as a space where memory, resistance, and dignity converge. Through these narratives, Devi not only disrupts the silence around Dalit and tribal women’s suffering but also reclaims their voices in the ongoing fight against caste and gender oppression.

This dissertation is a critical feminist analysis of the discourses, narratives and hegemonic power structures that define Dalit women's lives in Kerala, India. It focuses on intergenerational narratives of women and girls to illuminate how Dalit communities navigate development by specifically focusing on their educational narratives. To explore Dalit narratives, I conducted fieldwork in Kerala using in-depth interviews, photovoice, and participant observation as primary data. I coupled my primary data with secondary data sources such as development reports, trend data and newspapers to document how Dalit needs are framed. This research uses postcolonial feminist theory as it applies to the Kerala context along with intersectionality of identities as a conceptual framework to understand how gender, class, caste and religion shape Dalit women's education across different generations.;The findings of this study speak to three specific themes: (1) the material and social locations held by women and girls in the Dalit communities, (2) the neoliberal forces shaping Kerala's education, and (3) the patriarchal forces in the context of marriage and gender-based violence in Dalit homes, communities and schools. This research exposes the gendered subjectivities and vulnerabilities that Dalit women navigate through resistance, agency and power. Thus, by offering a contextualized place-based study of Dalit lives in Kerala, I argue that the discourses and practices of development in Kerala have failed to attend to Dalit needs.