Legal Aspects of Child Protection in Times of War: International and National Mechanisms, and Observations from Ukraine

Child sexual abuse constitutes one of the most serious violations of children’s rights, generating profound and long-lasting consequences for individual well-being and social development. Despite increasing international attention and legal reform efforts, many countries continue to face significant challenges in translating formal legal commitments into effective protection for children. This article adopts a socio-legal and multidisciplinary approach to examine the protection of children from sexual abuse in Vietnam, integrating human rights theory, behavioural psychology, criminology, empirical evidence, and legal analysis. Drawing on international standards, national legislation, official reports, and existing academic research, the article analyses the scale and characteristics of child sexual abuse in Vietnam, the institutional and legal frameworks governing child protection, and the principal obstacles to effective implementation. The findings reveal a persistent gap between formal legal compliance and substantive realisation of children’s rights, manifested in under-reporting, procedural deficiencies, limited child-friendly justice mechanisms, and fragmented institutional coordination. By applying the Theory of Planned Behavior and criminological perspectives, the article explains why punitive legal measures alone have limited preventive impact in contexts where social norms discourage disclosure and institutional responses are perceived as inaccessible or ineffective. The study argues that effective protection of children from sexual abuse requires a shift from a predominantly reactive, criminal-justice-centred model towards a holistic, rights-based, and child-centred protection system that prioritises prevention, child-friendly justice, and long-term recovery. The article contributes to interdisciplinary scholarship on child protection by demonstrating the value of integrating legal analysis with behavioural and social science insights, and by offering policy-oriented recommendations to strengthen the effective realisation of children’s rights in Vietnam and comparable contexts.

Today, violations of children’s rights have become more intense and have taken on new forms. Child protection laws provide a legal framework designed to shield children from harm and abuse, especially sexual abuse. These laws define the rights and responsibilities of parents, the state, and others involved with children. The objectives of this research are 1) to study the legal measures regarding child protection laws and issues related to the sexual exploitation of children in Thailand, compared to international and foreign laws, and 2) to explore ways to amend and improve Thai laws on child protection from sexual exploitation of children in Thailand to align with international standards. The study found that significant child protection laws in Thailand include: 1) the Child Protection Act, B.E. 2546 (2003), 2) the Anti-Human Trafficking Act, B.E. 2551 (2008), and 3) the Domestic Violence Victims Protection Act, B.E. 2550 (2007). However, due to various factors and ambiguous definitions, the child protection laws have not fully achieved their objectives, allowing offenders to receive lighter punishments. Therefore, this article examines ways to amend and improve Thai child protection laws regarding sexual exploitation of children to be consistent with international law. The recommendations on legal action can be divided into three approaches: legal measures and child protection issues regarding sexual exploitation of children, child protection issues from sexual exploitation, and measures to suppress those who sexually exploit children.

The development of the era of information technology and media at this time has a major impact, one of which is the violation of children's privacy rights. This study aims to find the legal aspects of children's privacy rights in the use of digital technology in the realm of international law and national law and how it is applied in Indonesia. The study conducted by the author is descriptive analytical with a normative juridical approach. It can be seen that international law has various provisions in the form of hard law and soft law that regulates the protection of children's rights, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Children's privacy rights in the use of information technology have not been implemented optimally because the law does not yet cover the protection of children's privacy. The data obtained from the use of information technology is sometimes misused or transferred to other parties who do not have the authority. The need to adopt various international provisions, both hard law and soft law, into national provisions that are in accordance with the needs of the Indonesian people. Encouraging the renewal of national provisions regarding the protection of children's privacy data considering the development of the current digital era which makes children's privacy data vulnerable

В умовах правової глобалізації об’єктивно посилюється зв’язок міжнародного права з національними правовими системами держав – членів міжнародного співтовариства, що знаходить свій прояв у взаємодії норм і принципів міжнародного права, які містяться в міжнародних договорах з системою національного конституційного права і законодавства. Найбільш яскраво ця взаємодія проявляється у запозиченні нормами національного конституційного права держав міжнародних правових стандартів як складної системної нормативної феноменології міжнародних договірних відносин, що після визнання державами-учасницями міжнародних договорів, шляхом їх підписання, повинні бути імплементовані в національну систему конституційного законодавства для подальшої дії на рівні та як звичайних норм національного конституційного права.
 Метою статті є дослідження феноменології місця, ролі, значення та застосування міжнародних правових стандартів у національному конституційному праві в контекстуалізації їх доктринального визначення, розуміння, а також праксеологічної цінності через дослідження їх поняття, ознак та місця в його системі джерел.
 Наукова новизна полягає у дослідженні місця та ролі міжнародних правових стандартів у національній системі конституційного права через визначення їх поняття, ознак та місця в системі джерел конституційного права.
 Висновки. Конституційне право держави є основоположною, фундаментальною та єдиною профілюючою галуззю національного права, бо саме її правові норми регулюють основні відносини, що виникають у процесі становлення, існування, функціонування та взаємодії між собою особистості (людини), суспільства та держави. Отже, з огляду на такий конституюючий характер зазначених правових відносин саме конституційному праву належить особлива роль у моделюванні національної системи права та національної системи законодавства, включаючи й запозичення норм міжнародного права. Актуальність досліджуваної проблематики обґрунтовується відсутністю вітчизняних наукових розробок з комплексного дослідження категорії «міжнародних стандартів», розкриття особливостей їх впливу на становлення і розвиток конституційного права України, з’ясування їх місця у сфері прав, свобод та обов’язків людини і громадянина в конституційному праві України, а також у формуванні та діяльності органів державної влади та місцевого самоврядування, нерозвиненістю відповідного законодавства та недостатністю узагальнення практики й зарубіжного досвіду із вказаних питань, – хоча її важливе теоретичне і практичне значення для розвитку національного конституційного нормопроектування (законопроектування), а також нормотворення (законотворення) у сфері імплементації міжнародних стандартів до національного законодавства України, є безумовно важливим. Наявність великої кількості доктринальних підходів щодо розуміння міжнародних правових стандартів все ж не вирішує завдання їх оптимального визначення, – разом із тим вважаємо, що теоретичні наробки в цій сфері йдуть по продуктивному шляху через визначення правової природи міжнародних правових стандартів, суб’єктів їх розробки, їх прийняття та легалізації на міжнародному рівні. Характерними рисами міжнародно-правових стандартів виступають: наявність об’єкта і методу правового регулювання; їх погоджувальний характер; їх координаційний характер; обов’язковість для тих сторін, які визнали їх добровільно; форми їх існування – міжнародний договір або інші акти міжнародних організацій; забезпечення їх реалізації, що відбувається на рівні держав або міжнародних організацій як об’єднань держав; їх структурна особливість, якою є відсутність структурного елемента норми – санкції. Міжнародні правові стандарти, що містяться в міжнародних багатосторонніх договорах, є ординарними та належними джерелами національного конституційного права, що можуть бути застосованими в практичній діяльності його суб’єктів як й інші норми національного права та законодавства.

This paper aims to explore the liability of the business sector in violations of children's rights that occur in Indonesia. In exploring the issue of liability, the author integrates the case with the principle of rights in business that applies globally known as Children's Rights and Business Principles (CRBP). Then the problem raised in this research is how the attribution of responsibility of the business sector when running its business violates children's rights, how the business sector integrates CRBP in its business to prevent violations of children's rights. This research is a normative research and the legal materials used are Law No. 35 of 2014 concerning Amendments to Law No. 23 of 2002 concerning Child Protection and Law No. 13 of 2003 concerning Labor. The findings of the research are that national laws do not specifically regulate the liability of the business sector when it violates children's rights. The business sector can only be held accountable in criminal or civil cases that cause harm to children. Therefore, this study recommends that CRBPs be integrated in the revision of the Child Protection Law and apply liability in the form of criminal or civil or administrative witnesses when violations of children's rights by the business sector occur.

The protection of children is a state responsibility based on the principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). As a member state, Indonesia ratified the Convention through Presidential Decree No. 36 of 1990. This study aims to analyze the implementation of child protection principles within the National Penal Code (Law No. 1 of 2023), referencing the four main pillars of the CRC: Non-Discrimination, the Best Interests of the Child, the Right to Survival and Development, and Child Participation. In this context, the author examines the application of these principles within various provisions of the Penal Code relevant to child protection. The analysis is conducted by categorizing these provisions based on the four main pillars of the CRC. This approach seeks to assess the extent to which the Penal Code aligns with international child protection standards while identifying potential inconsistencies that could harm children as legal subjects. By categorizing these provisions, the study aims to provide a deeper understanding of the integration of CRC principles into national criminal law and their implications for child protection in Indonesia. The results indicate that these principles have been incorporated into the Penal Code through specific provisions, particularly those concerning child protection. This reflects a national commitment to safeguarding children as a vulnerable group and ensuring their rights are fulfilled in accordance with international standards.

Expansion of aviation is not achievable without regulating and improving air safety worldwide. Air safety in aviation has always been associated with approving and implementing national and international laws, regulations and standards. The international aviation community has approved uniform safety regulations under treaties, bilateral agreements, and internationally required standards. The international civil aviation organization (ICAO) is continuously updating standards following the development of aviation technologies. However, implementing international air safety standards involves compliance with and implementation of the regulations by the states in their air transportation. With the adoption and updating of international air standards of ICAO, do the member states comply with them? Member States are not in the same status regarding the development of the aviation industry. Various political, economic, and technical factors impede countries' correct and appropriate implementation of standards. Hence, the member countries should obtain a legal method so that the international technical air standards in their aviation industry become mandatory. However, they should adopt these standards under national law and harmonize them with international air standards. Formulating them under national law is the preferred way to comply with these uniform international safety standards. To accomplish this, the relevant national legal and regulatory infrastructure for air regulations should be established in all states. The author first explains the theoretical and practical basis of developing comprehensive international aviation safety standards and then describes the mechanism and process of approving these standards in the framework of the national code.

It should be emphasized that the consideration of international legal standards from a systemic perspective is only just beginning to be the subject of close attention of legal scholars. There are already, unfortunately, only a few articles in which international standards are considered as independent systems in relation to the activities of a particular judicial or law enforcement agency or a particular area of professional legal activity, such as advocacy or notary activities, etc. The article explores important aspects related to the establishment and regulation of the competence of national judicial and law enforcement agencies in accordance with international legal standards. This study aims to examine and analyze the rules that determine the scope of powers of these bodies in the context of the global legal environment. The author examines the general principles and basic concepts that are crucial for determining the competence of national judicial and law enforcement agencies at the international level. Particular attention is paid to international agreements and conventions that define the obligations of states in the field of justice and law and order. The article attempts to summarize the results obtained and identify the prospects for the development of international legal standards in the field of competence and specifics of national judicial and other law enforcement agencies. The author emphasizes the importance of constant updating and adaptation of these standards to changes in the world to ensure an effective response to modern challenges to justice and law and order. In general, the article highlights the key aspects and challenges related to the determination of the competence and specifics of the activities of national judicial and other law enforcement agencies in the context of international legal standards, emphasizing the need for interaction and cooperation between countries to ensure justice and law and order at the global level. Key words: international standards, judiciary, law enforcement agencies, law enforcement activities, law and order.

The determination of a child’s origin is a key element in the realization of the child’s personal rights, including the right to a name, nationality, the right to know one’s parents, and the right to receive their care. This issue has become particularly relevant in the context of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, as access to Ukrainian state authorities is absent in the temporarily occupied territories, and civil status acts are de facto registered by the bodies of the occupation administration. The article examines the key international standards for the protection of the rights of children born in the temporarily occupied territories in the process of determining their parentage. In particular, the provisions of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War and its Additional Protocol, as well as the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, are analyzed. The reports of international organizations (PACE, the UN) on the state of compliance with the rights of Ukrainian children in the temporarily occupied territories are also analyzed. The author examines the impact of the provisions of these documents on amendments to Ukrainian legislation aimed at adapting international standards. Particular attention is paid to legislative initiatives regulating the procedure for the state registration of births in the temporarily occupied territories, as well as to their compliance with international standards. As a result of the analysis of international treaties, three key functions performed by international standards for the protection of children’s rights within national legislation are identified: normative, promotional, and procedural.It is concluded that certain international standards implemented in national legislation, such as the simplification of birth registration procedures and the issuance of birth certificates, as well as the consideration of documents issued by the occupation administration as evidence of the fact of birth, contribute to the observance of the child’s rights to immediate birth registration, to a name and the acquisition of Ukrainian nationality, to know one’s parents and receive their care, and to the preservation of identity. All measures taken by state authorities are aimed at ensuring the best interests of the child, as required by international law.

Street children are a serious problem, especially in provincial capitals and big cities. Their existence often causes various problems of traffic, order and urban security. This situation needs attention, because street children are the next generation who need to be educated and guided so that they can grow and develop naturally. Street children, however, have become a phenomenon that demands everyone's attention. party. The existence of this research raises the problem, namely: First, what is the meaning of street children, Second, how is the violation of children's human rights in the field of education, Third, how are the efforts to protect the human rights law of street children in the field of education. The study method is a juridical-normative method by examining national legislation and international conventions related to children's human rights in the field of education. The results showed that the form of violations of street children's human rights in the field of education was an act of neglect by the government.

The culture of “reciprocity” remains preserved and continues to serve as the foundation for the implementation of customary/Adat marriages among the indigenous Sea Tribe community in Lingga Regency. This study aims to strengthen cultural norms and regulatory frameworks, while also addressing the enforcement of such cultural practices. Employing an empirical legal approach, the study found that the practice of reciprocity conflicts with the prevailing national marriage law. Specifically, due to imbalances in social obligations, the Sea Tribe community often carries out child marriages based on custom without obtaining a court-issued marriage dispensation, as legally required. Furthermore, the Sea Tribe can no longer be classified as an Adat law community, as it no longer meets the criteria; instead, it should be regarded as a customary community that remains subject to national law. Drawing on Satjipto Rahardjo’s Theory of Legal Compliance, the study identifies three key factors contributing to the community’s non-compliance with marriage law: the lack of proper legal indoctrination, entrenched collective habits, and a limited understanding of the benefits of legal obedience. Consequently, the continued application of the reciprocity culture results in violations of children’s rights to health and education within the community. In light of Mochtar Kusumaatmadja’s Theory of Development Law, this study underscores the need for marriage law to more effectively govern the practices of the Sea Tribe community.

Crimes committed by children are currently experiencing a very significant increase. In Indonesia, the settlement of criminal cases against children is included in vulnerable children who need more attention in fulfilling their rights. However, there are still many violations of children's rights during their status as perpetrators of crimes and afterwards. This study aims to analyze the fulfilment of the formal education of criminal children by Law Number 11 of 2012 concerning the Juvenile Justice System. This study uses a qualitative approach with a literature study. The results of the study explain that Indonesia as a country that has ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child through Presidential Decree Number 36 of 1990 dated August 25, 1990, has further integrated children's rights into national law, namely into Law Number 23 of 2002 concerning Child Protection. Protection of children was created as an effort to educate and build quality and affluent children in education. These forms of protection include providing comfort, security, health, and adequate education. The existence of The Child Special Guidance Institute plays a vital role in fulfilling the educational needs of formal and non-formal children.

This paper explores the role and status of the family within the legal framework of Bosnia and Herzegovina, analyzing how international norms and national laws affect the rights and protection of families. The paper specifically examines the alignment between national legislation and international legal standards, with a particular focus on the challenges of implementing these norms. The study focuses on the definition of family in a legal sense, fundamental principles regulating the status of families in international law, and the significance of families in society. Key issues related to domestic violence, economic instability, and institutional weaknesses are highlighted as central obstacles to effective family protection. It also examines how international obligations are implemented in the national law of Bosnia and Herzegovina, identifying key challenges that families face, including social, economic, and legal aspects. The objectives of this paper are to analyze the legal frameworks applied to families, identify challenges in the everyday lives of families, and propose solutions to improve their status and protection. The recommendations aim at improving institutional capacities, enhancing legal enforcement mechanisms, and providing stronger support for vulnerable families, especially in post-conflict settings. The methodology includes comparative analysis of international conventions and national laws, literature review, case studies, and analysis of statistical data. The expected outcomes of this paper include a deeper understanding of the legal and social context affecting families in Bosnia and Herzegovina, identification of key barriers hindering the full protection and realization of family rights, and proposals for specific solutions to improve their position in society. The paper provides concrete recommendations for strengthening the legal framework and suggests policy improvements to support families, focusing on compliance with international standards, and aims to contribute to strengthening social cohesion and economic stability through a better understanding and protection of the family as a fundamental social unit.

The concept of the author's project of psychosocial support of the population in wartime conditions (on the example of the Dnipropetrovsk region), which includes a training course in psychological diagnosis and assistance, as well as the formation of social communications for the development of psychological stability and social cohesion in times of war is defined in the article. The directions of the educational and practical course, aimed at the formation of psychological stability and effective social communications, are substantiated, taking into account the results of the survey "The role of psychosocial support in wartime conditions". Within the framework of the study, the diagnosis of the needs of the population of the Dnipropetrovsk region in psychosocial support was carried out, taking into account the presence of stressful events and changes in professional/material/ social status; the educational and practical module on psychological diagnosis and assistance in wartime conditions and the educational and practical module on the formation of social communications in wartime were developed. Monitoring the effectiveness of the program of psychosocial support of the population involves taking into account both quantitative and qualitative indicators of the effectiveness of its implementation. It was determined that the implementation of the proposed measures within the psychosocial support program will allow to achieve both shortterm and long-term results. In particular, in the short term, the following is expected: improvement in the psychoemotional and physical health of project participants; finding internal and external resources to restore strength and psychological stability; increasing the level of cohesion of citizens and forming new social ties. According to the results of the training courses within the project, in the long term, a significant improvement in the psychological and physiological state of the participants is expected due to the use of psychological self-help practices in difficult situations, the knowledge of which was obtained during the project. In addition, participation in the educational and practical module on the formation of social communications will provide an opportunity for long-term strengthening of social ties and strengthening of people's cohesion, which is of great importance in times of war, increasing the morale of the population and its role in approaching victory.

The right to strike is a fundamental labour right enshrined in international and European human rights instruments, yet its practical exercise remains constrained in many jurisdictions. This article examines Ukraine’s legal framework governing the right to strike, highlighting how international standards interact with national legislation and policy during the country’s democratic transformation and EU accession process. It emphasizes that Ukraine’s commitment to aligning its strike legislation with international and European standards reflects its broader European integration agenda despite the extraordinary wartime conditions. The analysis contributes to a comparative discussion of labour law issues by illustrating the potential of international standards to transform national legislation on the protection of the right to strike, drawing on Ukraine’s experience. The authors demonstrate the impact of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) on eliminating extensive restrictions on the right to strike, as well as shaping the direction of current labour law reforms towards the democratization of industrial relations. However, it is argued that the sustainability and effectiveness of domestic legislative reform aimed at ensuring the right to strike depend on the extent to which this right is enshrined and protected at international and European levels.