Learning analytics on multimodal GAI-driven EFL oral learning: uncovering learning behavior clusters with motivation and performance dynamics

This study traces potential changes in the motivation of Saudi students studying English as a second language (L2) in the UK. It investigates whether the beliefs and motivations of these students have changed during their learning experience, and identifies the pedagogical implications of such change for English teaching, not only to Saudi students in the UK, but also to Saudi students enrolled in Saudi higher education institutions. It aims to identify the reasons behind changes in motivation as well as the impact these may have on students’ attitudes towards learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Data from questionnaires, interviews, and observations are used through three phases of English academic programme. The subjects of the study are newly arrived Saudi students (three PhD students and 29 Master’s students) studying in four different universities in the UK under the fields of Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, and Translation. The conceptual framework is based on Dornyei’s L2 Motivational Self System Theory and Dornyei & Ushioda’s framework of motivation and L2 self. Changes in motivation are usually accompanied by changes in students’ classroom involvement, attitudes towards the target language, and positive or negative impacts on the students’ outcomes and language competencies. Similar to other types of learning, L2 learning cannot take place in a vacuum.There are various factors that could affect second language learning in general, and learning English as a foreign language, in particular. One such factor is motivation in the second language acquisition (SLA). Studying the factors affecting motivation in language acquisition in this study is important because without motivation, even learners with vital skills cannot attain long-term goals. Also, the analysis of changes in behaviour, attitudes, and results could help in monitoring and tracing changes in language learning motivation. The present study has various contributions to the field of SLA. First, it validates earlier studies about the issue of motivation in linguistics, attitudes towards language, and changes in one’s self-identity as an outcome of language development. Second, it serves as an addition to the body of knowledge pertaining to motivation and attitude of Saudi students towards English as L2 and the important role of culture in this process. Further, it serves as an important contribution to how Saudi students’ L2 acquisition is understood using Dornyei's L2 Motivational Self System.

If a person who is intrinsically motivated to perform an activity begins to receive external reinforcement for the activity, what will happen to his intrinsic motivation? Previous studies and the present study indicate that money decreases intrinsic motivation, while verbal reinforcements tend to enhance intrinsic motivation. The beginning of a cognitive evaluation theory is discussed, and an apparently discrepant prediction between this theory and inequity theory is pointed out. It is argued, however, that the theories are not conceptually discrepant, and the present study gives support for this argument. It is possible to distinguish between two broad classes of motivation to perform an activity: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. A person is intrinsically motivated if he performs an activity for no apparent reward except the activity itself (cf. Berlyne, 1966; Hunt, 1965; White, 1959). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, refers to the performance of an activity because it leads to external rewards (e.g., status, approval, or passing grades). The question of interest in this study is whether there will be changes in a person's intrinsic motivation for an activity when he receives external rewards for performing that activity. Deci (1971) reported that external reinforcements do affect intrinsic motivation, and he suggested the initial elements of a cognitive evaluation theory to account for the changes in intrinsic motivation following an experience with extrinsic rewards. The theory focuses on a person's cognitive evaluation of an activity and the reasons for his engaging in the activity. It suggests that distinctions should be made among different kinds of external rewards, since a person's evaluation of different rewards may be different. In turn, this would 1 The author would like to thank Wayne Cascio for serving as the first experimenter and for helping with the data analysis; Victor Vroom for making helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript; and Larry Coff for being the second experimenter.

The impact of cancer on adult survivors of aggressive non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma (NHL) is understudied. We examined positive and negative life changes (health behaviors, relationships, financial situation) experienced by survivors of NHL and their association with physical and mental function. Using the Los Angeles County Cancer Surveillance Program, 744 questionnaires were mailed to adult survivors of NHL: 308 provided complete data for analyses (M age=59.8, SD=14.9). Perceptions of positive and negative life changes were common in our sample, with 77.9% of NHL survivors reporting at least one positive change and 78.6% reporting at least one negative change. Cancer had the greatest positive change on relationships and the most negative change on survivors' financial situation. There was an equal distribution of survivors classified as having experienced positive change and negative change on health behaviors. Regardless of whether positive and negative life change were entered into separate regression models or the same model, an increase in negative life change in each of the domains was significantly associated with a decrease in physical and mental functioning. Positive change was significantly associated only with physical functioning when examining overall change (p=.018) and health behaviors (p=.013), and the inclusion of negative change attenuated these associations. In designing interventions to improve the mental and physical function of NHL survivors, the greatest benefit may likely be achieved by reducing the negative effects of cancer. Perhaps positive life changes are related in more specific ways to other indexes of adjustment, but our findings failed to show a positive relationship with mental and physical function.

In this study, the effects of using generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) as a metacognitive scaffolding tool in flipped classrooms (FC) on students’ motivation, critical thinking(CT), self-efficacy, engagement, problem-solving, metacognitive strategy use, and learning flexibility were examined through an experimental design. The study was conducted with three groups using a pre-test and post-test control group quasi-experimental design. All groups were taught using the FC model. The participants of the study consisted of 98 undergraduate students. The findings revealed that the use of GenAI as a metacognitive scaffolding tool in FC created significant differences in extrinsic motivation, CT, self-efficacy, engagement, problem-solving, metacognitive strategy use, and learning flexibility. However, GenAI did not lead to significant changes in intrinsic motivation, and its impact was not uniformly positive across all variables, highlighting the importance of thoughtful implementation. In the FC implementation supported with metacognitive scaffolding, significant differences were identified in self-efficacy and metacognitive strategy use.

The authors investigated how students’ (N = 233) perceptions of the social environment of their eighth-grade classroom related to changes in motivation and engagement when they moved from seventh to eighth grade. In general, prior motivation and engagement were strong predictors of subsequent motivation and engagement, whereas gender, race, and prior achievement were not related to changes in motivation or engagement. A higher-order classroom social environment factor accounted for significant changes in all motivation and engagement outcomes. Four distinct dimensions of the social environment were differentially important in explaining changes in various indices of motivation and engagement. In general, however, students’ perceptions of teacher support, and the teacher as promoting interaction and mutual respect were related to positive changes in their motivation and engagement. Students’ perceptions of the teacher as promoting performance goals were related to negative changes in student motivation and engagement. Implications for recent educational reform initiatives were also discussed.

The study examines how Business Schools at universities in Korea can motivate Korean, English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in business courses under the policy of English-medium instruction (EMI). This research focuses on the role of non-native English speaking teachers (NNESTs) and native English speaking teachers (NESTs) in an EFL environment. To conduct the experiment, EFL learners’ motivation changes and qualitative interviews are collected; the NNEST class (n = 19), and NEST class (n = 18). The results of the motivation survey showed that at the beginning of the semester, the NNEST class learners displayed a lower level of confidence and intrinsic motivation than that of NEST class learners. However, by the end of the semester, while the intrinsic motivation levels remained the same, the NNEST class showed a higher level of confidence, interest, and extrinsic motivation than that of NEST class. Qualitative interviews were also done after the semester ended. The results of the interviews showed that motivation changes had no direct effect on classroom satisfaction in EFL contexts as learners understood the differences between NNESTs and NESTs, and their expectations in class of these two teachers were clearly different. Based on the findings, the paper also provides some policy advice to universities so as to help increase Korean EFL learners’ motivation and class satisfaction under the English-medium instruction policy.

Although theoretical accounts suggest prospective memory to be adversely affected when cognitive resources are subjected to depletion, previous research has not consistently supported this notion. It is possible that the inconsistencies are due in part to retrieval demands resulting from different target cue types. The primary aim of these studies was to determine resource depletion effects across different prospective memory target cue types that are hypothesized to involve varying levels of cognitive control. Given that recent theoretical accounts of how depletion effects involve consideration of motivational shifting, a secondary exploratory aim was to evaluate whether exposure to resource-depleting conditions would result in changes in intrinsic motivation. Both studies resulted in no convincing evidence that prospective memory performance after depletion exposure varied by target cue types. However, there was a small effect of depletion on 1 aspect of intrinsic motivation, perceived competency, in Study 1, but this effect was not replicated in Study 2. The results are in line with previous studies that have found no evidence that resource depletion affects prospective memory performance under controlled conditions but offer preliminary evidence that changes in motivation may be an important factor.

Non-formal learning is becoming increasingly important in everyday life. Both the availability of open online learning opportunities and the number of participants in online courses continue to grow. Initially learners report high levels of motivation, but completion rates tend to be low. In the present study, we examined motivational trajectories of learners completing a non-formal online course. To this end, 450 learners of 49 open online courses offered by Bavarian universities completed up to three online questionnaires throughout the course. First, we used latent profile analysis to explore motivational trajectories within five subtypes of situational motivation, which resulted in four different motivational profiles. However, all profiles were characterized by remarkable stability over time, and differences only in the actual levels of the five motivational subtypes. Second, we used bivariate latent change score models to focus on differences of change in intrinsic motivation when analyzing simultaneously with situational interest. In addition, we considered self-regulation and mastery goal orientation as predictors of change in motivation. For intrinsic motivation there was only a small mean change and compensating effect from T1 to T2. We discuss the findings in the light of the fact that there are high dropout rates in non-formal online courses and offer practical advice on how to better address non-completers in future research.

Grades in introductory STEM courses can impact intrinsic motivation (IM) and self-efficacy (SE). We used an exploratory approach to examine trends in grades and how IM and SE impact students’ grades. It is known that most first-generation (FG) college students are from underrepresented backgrounds (URM), and that these students are least likely to persist in STEM fields. Therefore, gaining a better understanding of motivation in our most underserved students could be critical to improving their success in introductory biology courses and ultimately future persistence in STEM. We found that, on average, URM FG students received the lowest final grades and experienced the greatest declines in IM and SE. This research informs the way we may think about changes in motivation and self-efficacy in our introductory biology courses as these lay the foundation for future learning and success.

This study traces potential changes in the motivation of Saudi students studying English as a second language (L2) in the UK. It investigates whether the beliefs and motivations of these students have changed during their learning experience, and identifies the pedagogical implications of such change for English teaching, not only to Saudi students in the UK but also to Saudi students enrolled in Saudi higher education institutions. It aims to identify the reasons behind changes in motivation as well as the impact these may have on students’ attitudes towards learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Data from questionnaires, interviews, and observations are used through three phases of the English academic programme. The study subjects are newly arrived Saudi students (three PhD students and 29 Master’s students) studying in four different universities in the UK under the fields of Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, and Translation. The conceptual framework is based on Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System Theory and Dörnyei & Ushioda’s motivation and L2 self-framework. Changes in motivation are usually accompanied by changes in students’ classroom involvement, attitudes towards the target language, and positive or negative impacts on the students’ outcomes and language competencies. Similar to other types of learning, L2 learning cannot take place in a vacuum. The present study has various contributions to the field of SLA. First, it validates earlier studies about the issue of motivation in linguistics, attitudes towards language, and changes in one’s self-identity as an outcome of language development. Second, it serves as an addition to the body of knowledge pertaining to motivation and attitude of Saudi students towards English as L2 and the important role of culture in this process. Further, it serves as an important contribution to how Saudi students’ L2 acquisition is understood using Dörnyei's L2 Motivational Self System.

Research on the use of generative artificial intelligence (GAI) in English Language Teaching (ELT) is growing rapidly, yet few studies focus on its application in volunteer-driven English as a Second Language (ESL) teaching contexts. This study explores how integrating ChatGPT-4 can support volunteer ESL teachers in lesson planning and task design. The research investigates the role of GAI in addressing the challenges faced by untrained volunteer ESL teachers, such as limited resources, time constraints, and lack of training. Using Activity Theory as a framework, this qualitative case study analyses the interactions between volunteer teachers and ChatGPT-4 over four weeks. Findings suggest that ChatGPT-4 enhances lesson planning by saving time, increasing teacher confidence, and generating useful materials. However, it also highlights the necessity for teachers to critically evaluate GAI suggestions to ensure quality. This study contributes to the literature by demonstrating GAI's potential to enhance pedagogical practices in community-based ESL contexts and proposes a balanced approach to GAI integration, emphasising the importance of human oversight. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies, incorporating learner feedback, and exploring broader ELT and English language learning (ELL) contexts to build on this work.Keywords: ESL; volunteer teaching; generative artificial intelligence; lesson planning; Activity Theory; ChatGPT-4Part of the Special Issue Activity theory in technology enhanced learning research (part 2) <https://doi.org/10.21428/8c225f6e.a88579e2>

This paper explored informal (after-school) and formal (elective course in-school) learning contexts as contributors to middle-school student attitudinal changes in a guided discovery-based and blended e-learning program in which students designed web games and used social media and information resources for a full school year. Formality of the program context did not substantially influence attitude changes but did appear to influence learning outcomes. While intrinsic motivation did not change in the aggregate from pre- to post-program among students, positive changes in intrinsic motivation were found to be associated with engagement in almost all areas of student engagement in Globaloria, with several at-home engagement changes measured. This finding challenges critiques of discovery-based learning as being de-motivating. Lower parent education among students was associated with positive changes in self-efficacy for online research indicating that disadvantaged students may stand to benefit from programs like this one. The study offers support for the need to more definitively explicate instructional design and context factors in educational technology research when investigating influences upon learning outcomes. The study holds implications for designing effective digital literacy interventions, and contributes to theory in the learning sciences and socio-technical systems research.

The present study investigated 3 theoretically plausible explanations for changes in school-related intrinsic motivation. A sample of 348 German 11th-grade students was followed for 1 year. At 2 measurement occasions, students completed self-reports regarding their school-related intrinsic motivation, goal orientations, and competence beliefs. In line with previous studies, cross-lagged analyses provided little evidence for the hypothesis that prior competence beliefs affect subsequent intrinsic motivation after controlling for prior intrinsic motivation. Considering goal orientations as a moderator did not change this result. Instead, learning goals, but not performance goals, directly predicted the change in students' intrinsic motivation, but not vice versa. Findings are discussed with regard to advancing motivation theory and practical implications.

Motivation is one of the most important affecting rehabilitation outcomes. In present study, we propose a novel method to evaluate intrinsic motivation. We conducted experiments of simulated cognitive rehabilitation exercises. The results of these experiments demonstrate that intrinsic motivation is correlated to valence. Furthermore, CIM (Changes in intrinsic motivation) can be detected with up to 80% accuracy, using physiological states. The result showed that this method more precisely detects CIM than occupational therapists.Clinical Relevance-The proposed method enables to evaluate changes in intrinsic motivation during cognitive rehabilitation without disturbing or suspending rehabilitation.

Purpose This study investigates how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers from higher education develop and refine their curriculum design with Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen-AI) collaboration during the Lesson Study (LS). Design/methodology/approach Through a qualitative case study approach, we followed six English teachers in their collaborative work with a Gen-AI teaching assistant (Kimi) over a 6-month semester. Data were collected through the recordings of LS cycles, teacher interviews and reflections and documentation of teacher-AI interactions etc. Findings The findings revealed three key aspects of Gen-AI integration in designing EFL curriculum: First, teachers progressively discovered Kimi’s capabilities in lesson planning, material development, and activity design, showing value in generating differentiated learning resources. Second, the teachers developed sophisticated collaboration patterns with the Gen-AI, demonstrating iterative refinement approaches and strategic integration of Gen-AI suggestions throughout the LS cycles. Third, teachers' critical reflections showed evolution in their evaluation and application of Gen-AI contributions, maintaining professional agency while leveraging Gen-AI capabilities effectively. Research limitations/implications This study has several limitations that inform future research directions. Our investigation focused specifically on EFL higher education using a single Gen-AI tool (Kimi), which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other educational contexts and AI platforms. Practical implications These findings suggest that Gen-AI integration through LS can enhance teachers' professional practice while promoting critical engagement with Gen-AI tools. The study provides insights into how Gen-AI can be meaningfully integrated into teacher professional development through collaborative LS approaches. Originality/value The study demonstrates how the LS framework supports balanced AI integration while maintaining teacher agency. In addition, it reveals the process of AI capability discovery and strategic implementation in EFL teaching.