Leadership Categorization Theory: A Critical Replication and Extension with Cognitive Mapping

PurposeThis paper contributes to leadership categorization theory by advocating a new method to surface people's implicit leadership theories. The purpose of this new approach is to simultaneously capture individual difference in how they conceptualize leadership but within a common framework to allow for comparison of within- and between-person effects.Design/methodology/approachThe authors conduct a narrative review of the implicit leadership theory, leadership categorization theory, cognitive mapping and verbal protocol literature with the purpose of surfacing a research method that will overcome the problems of over-simplification and over-individualization in existing methods.FindingsThe authors argue that using a combination of cognitive mapping and verbal protocols can capture the idiosyncrasies of individual lay theories of leadership while retaining the ability to compare people's responses through a common framework. The authors provide an example of how this method can be used to elicit people's perceptions of one aspect of implicit leadership theories, intelligence.Research limitations/implicationsThis new method will provide a methodology to test the subset propositions advocated by leadership categorization theory. These include the idea that subordinate level implicit leadership theories contain a subset of attributes found in the basic-level implicit leadership theories, that there is attribute integrity in superordinate implicit leadership theories through the levels, and the idea that people define leadership differently depending on the context they are observing.Originality/valueWhereas previous approaches to surfacing people's implicit leadership theories either heavily constrain their responses with a predetermined generic suite of attributes or are totally open-ended and idiosyncratic, the authors advocate an approach that combines the best of both.

We offer a comprehensive review of the theoretical underpinnings and existing empirical evidence in the implicit leadership and implicit followership theories domain. After briefly touching on the historical roots of information-processing approaches to leadership and leader categorization theory, we focus on current contextualized and dynamic perspectives. We specifically present neural network approaches and adaptive resonance processes that guide leadership perceptions. We further address measurement issues, emerging areas of study such as implicit leadership theories, and identity and cross-cultural issues. We offer specific avenues for future research in the form of a systematic list of unanswered research questions and further outline leadership development implications.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that shape followers’ initial reactions to leaders. Based on the literature on self-concept and leader categorization theory, it was hypothesized that followers’ self-concepts (specifically their self-esteem and self-construal) would predict their conceptualization of an ideal leader (i.e., their implicit leadership theory, ILT), which would then predict followers’ preferences for specific leadership styles. Using a sample of 206 university students, results indicated that the effects of independent self-construal on charismatic leader preference were partially mediated by the dedication ILT dimension, and the effects of interdependent self-construal were fully mediated by the sensitivity ILT dimension. Additional findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Although research on implicit leadership theories (ILTs) has concentrated on determining which attributes define a leadership prototype, little attention has been paid to testing the relative importance of each of these attributes for individuals’ leadership perceptions. Building on socio-cognitive theories of impression processes, we experimentally explore the formation of leadership perceptions based on the recognition of six key attributes in a series of three experimental studies comprising 566 US-based participants recruited online via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Our results show that while certain attributes play an important role in the leader categorization process, others are less relevant. We also demonstrate that some attributes’ importance is contingent on the presence of other attributes and on the leadership schema type activated in respondents’ minds. Consistent with the Leadership Categorization Theory, our findings support the premise that individuals cognitively hold a superordinate leadership prototype, which imposes constraints on their more basic level prototypes. We discuss the implications of these results for leadership theory and practice.

Developments in implicit leadership theory and cognitive science: Applications to improving measurement and understanding alternatives to hierarchical leadership

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is explore the role that the implicit leadership theories held by followers and supervisors play in the performance appraisals of specific leaders, as well as in the promotion recommendations to higher levels of management that these leaders receive. In particular, the focus of this paper is on the degree of match between the general images held by supervisors and followers of how leaders are/should be (i.e. implicit leadership theories), and the concrete perceptions that these supervisors and followers have of the actual leaders in question.Design/methodology/approachSeveral propositions are established taking into account the moderating role of implicit leadership theories in the relationship between performance, on the one hand, and performance evaluation and promotion recommendations, on the other hand. These propositions are based on evidence of discrimination against women and ethnic minority groups when it comes to evaluations and promotion recommendations. Recommendations for organisational practice are derived from the issues discussed.FindingsWhen there is a poor match between a supervisor's implicit leadership theories and his or her perception of a subordinate leader, this leader's performance appraisal and promotion chances are believed to decrease. In a similar manner, the implicit leadership theories of followers may influence their appraisal of a leader's performance.Originality/valueThis is the first time that implicit leadership theories are connected to leaders’ careers. This connection is made both in the context of equal opportunities for leaders and in the context of optimising decisions in organisations. The implicit leadership theories of both followers and supervisors need to be taken into account when evaluating and promoting leaders.

Contemporary so called follower-centric leadership theories often argue that “good leadership is in the eye of the beholder”. Leader categorization theory, for instance, suggests that subordinates use their cognitive representation of an ideal leader (ideal leader prototype) as an implicit “benchmark” to determine their openness towards the target’s leadership, i.e., influence. With the present study, we extend this rationale by hypothesizing that such benchmarking processes are subject to follower individual differences. In particular, we argue that the process of leader categorization plays a bigger role for subordinates who perceive themselves as ideal (potential) leaders. Moreover, this two-way moderation is proposed to be further qualified by subordinates’ disposition to engage in social comparison orientation. Results of two field samples with employees ( N = 140; N = 287) confirm our hypotheses. In integrating the leader categorization perspective with an individual difference perspective, we not only expand the scope of follower-centric theorizing on social influence, but also support its validity.

Leader categorization theory proposes that the more leaders match their subordinates' cognitive image (prototype) of an ideal leader the easier it is for subordinates to “categorize” them as leaders and consequently follow their leadership. Based on self‐concept research, we extend this perspective and argue that the relationship assumed in leader categorization theory should be stronger when subordinates perceive themselves to represent the ideal leader prototype. Further, this moderating effect should be stronger when subordinates perceive the ideal leader prototype to not only be an abstract ideal category, but one that is generally also met in reality; i.e., when it is met by typical leaders. Findings of a cross‐sectional study with employees in Germany (N = 297) support both predictions.

Leadership succession planning is crucial to the continuity of the comprehensive vision of the hospital pharmacy department. Leadership development is arguably the main component of training and preparing pharmacists to assume managerial positions. Succession planning begins with a review of the organizational chart in the context of the institution's strategic plan. Then career ladders are developed and key positions that require succession plans are identified. Employee profiles and talent inventory should be performed for all employees to identify education, talent, and experience, as well as areas that need improvement. Employees should set objective goals that align with the department's strategic plan, and management should work collaboratively with employees on how to achieve their goals within a certain timeframe. The succession planning process is dynamic and evolving, and periodic assessments should be conducted to determine how improvements can be made. Succession planning can serve as a marker for the success of hospital pharmacy departments.

The role of a school principal is increasingly complex; in Catholic schools, principals face the additional challenge of navigating the terrain between State demands and the requirements of the Catholic community, managing multifaceted and sometimes competing expectations. This paper investigates contemporary views and experiences of principals (headteachers) in Catholic secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland. It examines the results of the first large scale, mixed methods empirical study into Catholic school ethos in the Republic of Ireland, of which leadership is an essential dimension. Employing both survey and semi-structured interview data, it analyses the practices, views and experiences of principals of secondary Catholic schools and highlights the role and reality of leading a Catholic school in the Republic of Ireland today. Findings demonstrate a level of commitment and professionalism among principals, and much in the way of good practice and commitment to ethos. However, they also indicate succession concerns and an urgent need for leadership development supports for existing and aspiring Catholic school principals. While the study is carried out in Ireland, it is also of interest to other Catholic education systems looking to the future of school leadership.

Leadership development and succession planning is a valuable strategy for closing the gender gap and providing an equal chance for males and females to be trained and involved in leadership roles. This strategy is an incredibly effective tool in higher education, where there is a significant disparity between male and female academic leaders. Despite its effectiveness, succession planning remained an overlooked component of the higher education system. Further research studies enhance our understanding of the current state of succession planning and the factors that affect the recruitment and selection of future academic leaders. Hence, this study aims to identify the current women's leadership development and succession planning practices in public and private universities in Saudi Arabia. A qualitative study was conducted in a Saudi Arabian higher education setting. The interest in Saudi Arabia stems from the fact that succession planning is less likely to be practiced since gender discrimination is apparent when assigning leadership positions. Results indicate that top powers typically select leaders since succession planning is absent in Saudi Arabia's higher education institutions. In this circumstance, networking and relationships play a significant role, as these institutions have no formalized succession planning process. In a highly gender-segregated society like Saudi Arabia, women are deprived of expanding their networks and showcasing capabilities to male decision-makers. The results of this study further identified the underlying components of the women's leadership and succession planning process in the Saudi Arabian setting. This study contributes to leadership and succession planning knowledge and its implications, which may extend opportunities for practitioners, consultants, and policymakers to include women in higher education succession planning.

Purpose: This study explores the integration of leadership strategy evaluation and succession planning in preparing future organizational leaders. It investigates how organizations can evaluate the effectiveness of current leadership strategies and align them with long-term organizational goals to ensure sustainable leadership continuity. Research Design and Methodology: This research employs a qualitative systematic literature review (SLR) methodology to synthesize existing leadership strategy evaluation and succession planning research. The study examines key practices, challenges, and theoretical frameworks associated with leadership development and succession planning, drawing from recent studies published after 2018. Findings and Discussion: The findings reveal that organizations integrating leadership strategy evaluation with succession planning are better positioned to ensure leadership continuity. Effective leadership strategies focus on developing internal talent through structured training, mentorship, and job rotations. The study emphasizes the need for leadership strategies to be aligned with organizational goals, enabling future leaders to navigate long-term challenges effectively. Additionally, the research highlights the importance of overcoming challenges such as resistance to change and organizational culture in implementing effective succession planning. Implications: This research provides practical insights for organizations to align leadership development with succession planning, ensuring long-term organizational sustainability. It emphasizes the importance of developing internal leadership pipelines, creating mentoring systems, and integrating human resource policies with strategic goals. Organizations are encouraged to foster a culture of internal mobility and continuous leadership development to ensure seamless transitions and minimize operational disruptions.

Perianesthesia Management Succession

Leadership categorization theory (LCT) argues that people develop mental models, or prototypes, for ideal leaders based on leaders they have encountered in the past. Organizational diversity, equity, and inclusion scholars have used LCT to explain why White men are consistently overrepresented in leadership positions. Historically, vignette research has found support for this argument, but recent replications of seminal LCT research have reported divergent findings. One potential explanation for these failed replications stems from social desirability effects. This argument states that because participants desire to behave in a socially desirable manner, detecting discrimination in laboratory or vignette research may be more difficult than it was in the past. To examine this explanation, the current research attempts to replicate Gündemir et al.'s (2019) fourth study because this study showed evidence for (no discrimination toward Black leaders) and against (discrimination toward Asian American leaders) social desirability effects. The current research includes a reproducibility study, a literal replication, and two constructive replications. While we were able to successfully reproduce the original findings using the authors’ data, our replication studies using newly collected data did not show evidence of the primary effects reported in the focal study.

This study explored how human resource (HR) leaders' biased perceptions of frontline manager (FLM) effectiveness influence HR ratings of FLM competencies, resulting in insufficient training and job preparation for these critical employees. The literature review examined FLM research, ratings of supervisory competencies and the underlying theoretical frameworks of implicit leadership theory and leadership categorization theory, and their relationship to informal learning. The research used mixed methods, with a qualitative critical incident study to identify competencies, followed by a quantitative survey to compare ratings, followed by qualitative in‐person interviews to confirm survey findings. Results revealed a significant difference between HR and other raters of FLMs, including the FLMs themselves, with regard to FLM effectiveness, and these differences are informed by HR stereotypes of FLMs. Recommendations and implications suggest HR's role in providing unbiased assessment could lead to essential FLM training and development.