Le plurime identità “italiane” prima dell’Unità d’Italia. Una introduzione

1. Introduction The world around us is shrinking continually--distances and boundaries that previously held considerable separation power have been markedly eroded by developments in technology and international cooperation. This has created many new situations of intercultural contact, highlighted previously existing identity conflicts and brought to the fore a number of new ones. To tackle the resulting challenges adequately, researchers have focused considerable effort in investigating the field of acculturation and bicultural identity formation. Although various multiculturalism issues have been studied for some time already, there is yet no widespread agreement concerning the strategies used by individuals and groups in forming a bicultural identity and in combining the ethnic and national dimensions of identity (Phinney et al. 2001, Sidanius et al.). One of the central problems of multiculturalism lies in the fact that minorities tend to draw a distinction between the ethnic and the national identity, while majority groups do not, because their ethnic and national identity usually coincide. In the current study we define these component identities as follows: ethnic identity focuses on the feeling of belonging to one's group of origin, i.e. ethnic group (Phinney 1990), while national identity refers to feelings of belonging to a larger society or a state, and involves a political or a civic component (Smith 1991, Phinney et al. 2001). For members of an ethnic minority both identities--ethnic and national--are necessary for effective adaptation (Oudenhoven 2006). Such adaptation, in turn, tends to correlate with higher life satisfaction (Pavot and Diener 2008). While most immigrant groups demonstrate a relatively strong ethnic identity, the strength of their national identity as well as the strength and direction of the relationship between their ethnic and national identity is shown to be more variable and to relate to the specific acculturation context (Phinney et al. 2001). National identity is clearly the more complicated component of the two, because embracing the national identity of the host country presumes, on the one hand, that the minorities are willing to adopt it and, on the other hand, that the host majority is ready to share it. The study reported in this article investigated the relationship between ethnic identities and the Estonian national identity (1) among different ethnic groups in Estonia. The aim of the study was to identify those aspects of identity that facilitate the development of a shared national identity. In order to be acceptable to and meaningful for both the country's ethnic minorities and the majority group, these aspects must be culturally open. A national identity constructed on their basis will be referred to below as the Estonian Open Identity (EOI). The authors' general interest was to find out whether and how the ethnic and national identity of the host group (ethnic Estonians) facilitates the development of a healthy, fulfilling bicultural identity among the country's minorities. EOI should be easily combinable with different ethnic identities and thus facilitate bicultural identity development. The principal research question underlying the study was: What are or could be the dimensions of the Estonian national identity that are open enough to allow adoption to be adopted by all ethnic groups in Estonia? 1.1 Ethnic minority acculturation and bicultural identity Preserving one's ethnic identity and adopting the national majority identity of the society or state of residence can be viewed as expressions of the two main dimensions of psychological acculturation--maintenance or loss of the original culture and adoption of or separation from the new host culture. There are several models of acculturation to account for the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place in the host and home culture, or in the national and ethnic identity of minority group members (for a comprehensive overview see LaFromboise et al. …

In the context of a multi-racial country consisting of Malays, Chinese, and Indians as the main majority, the search for the value of national architectural identity is important in highlighting racial harmony. Therefore, establishing the national architectural identity framework is necessary to ensure this can be realized. This paper focuses on the construction of an architectural frameworkof national identity based on the results of previous scholarly studies. This study uses a hermeneutic methodology in which data were collected from scholarly views through literature reviews and then interpreted into its disciplinary subject matter in compiling the indicators for the national architectural identity to propose a framework for public administration building in Malaysia. A case study of green building certified –MBJB Tower is used to further broaden the understanding of the national identityof architecture in Malaysia. An interview session with related personnel and site observation was carried away at MBJB Tower to test the proposed framework. An interpretive paradigm was used to explore each architectural element of national identity and anarrative method was used to discuss the findings in this paper. As an outcome, the architectural framework of the national architectural identity of public administration buildings consists of an understanding of the role, typology, and themes of architectural national identity. The architectural design pattern of national identity for public buildings is seen at three levels, namely macro, mesoand microlevels. The architectural measurement of the national identity of a building can be defined by the design features produced based on the context of venustas, firmitas,and utilitas. In general, the MBJB Tower building is a good example of national identity architecture and can be used as a benchmark to produce more national architectural identity buildings in the future.


 Background. The problem of national identity became relevant in connection with the development of an independent, sovereign Ukrainian state. The verbalized concept of «identity» is understood in broad historical and geopolitical contexts, projecting conclusions on public policy, socio-economic situation, national and cultural processes in society. The linguo-cognitive meaning of the term «national identity2, used in scientific and literary texts, needs to be studied.
 Purpose. To analyze the lexical semantics of the word identity in the modern Ukrainian literary language, to identify features of its interpretation in lexicographic sources, to trace the functioning of the phrase national identity in scientific texts and to outline the specifics of verbalization of «identity», «mentality» in the literary text.
 Methods. The study uses a method of comparative analysis of dictionary interpretations of register words identical, identity to substantiate the stylistic marker book (word) in modern Ukrainian literary language, as well as contextual – interpretive method for structuring the meaning of the term national identity, identifying features of verbalization in scientific and literary texts.
 Results. The verbalized term «identity» common in the modern humanities, in particular its semantic structure, needs to be clarified in the context of terminological meaning in relation to the representatives of the nation, national culture, i.e. national identity. Dictionaries of foreign words published at different times, explanatory dictionaries of the modern Ukrainian language do not fix the terminological meaning of the lexical item identity, semantically related to the concept of «nation». A characteristic feature of identity involves a logical process of conferring, comparing of objects, phenomena, concepts and identifying a common feature – the same, identical content, as evidenced by the phrases given in dictionaries. In contrast to the illustrations recorded in lexicographical sources, the phrase national identity actualized in modern literary language indicates a higher degree of abstraction: the feature represents the synthesis of common (indicating common features inherent in a certain nation) and different (seme of opposition to other nations with their identical features). Modern scientific texts in the humanities expand the combination of words identical, identity that form new phrases, acquiring a new terminological meaning in the system of concepts of history, philosophy, political science, sociology, culturology, linguistics.
 Synonymization of the words nation, ethnos in modern scientific and journalistic discourse has led to the parallel use of the phrases national identity and ethnic identity that identify the meaning of the lexical items nation, ethnos. Studiers often include the following concepts in the differential features of national identity: territory, religion, language. However, their assessment and identification role in relation to the integrity of the Ukrainian nation is defined differently. In discussions about the modern Ukrainian nation, the concepts of national (state), ethnic, historical, territorial, linguistic, cultural identity are distinguished. The concept of national identity is related to the linguo-pragmatic meaning of the term mentality, interpreted differently in scientific and literary contexts. The Ukrainian literary language has historically formed a word-forming series that combines words with the component SELF: self-consciousness, self-identification, identity, self-sufficiency, self-discovery, self-realization, self-affirmation, self-understanding, self-realization, self-correction, self-preservation, self-determination, self-humiliation, self-identity. The logical and psychological meaning of these nominations is correlated with the terms national identity, mentality.
 Discussion. The formation of an independent state has actualized the theme of national identity in the context of modern globalization. Linguistic analysis (lexical-semantic, linguo-cognitive) is supplemented by a contextual interpretation of the content of the terminological concept of «national identity». In scientific (historical, culturological, ethnological) texts the interpretation of varieties of identity with the focus on the concepts of «national» and «ethnic» identity is traced. The conclusion about the historical variability of the category of national identity is made. The authors of modern historical studies connect the phenomenon of national identity with the creation of the modern Ukrainian nation. 
 Comparison of scientific and artistic interpretation of the concept of national identity opens the prospect of studying the types of identities and linguo-cognitive structuring of each of them.

Based on the empirical research, the article considers the correlation of national and ethnic identities of the youth of Saint Petersburg. The authors conclusions are based on a series of sociological studies conducted in 1996, 2011 and 2019 by the Laboratory of Ethnic Sociology and Psychology of the Faculty of Sociology of the Saint Petersburg State University under the guidance of Z.V. Sikevich and also on the data of other researchers studying similar issues in different Russian regions. The authors present their interpretation of the structure of national identity and typology of ethnic identities; consider the following forms of correlation of national and ethnic identities - dominant ethnic identity, ethnic radicalism, dominant national identity, ethno-national radicalism, ethnic and national indifference; focus on the rank of national identification in the system of group identities and on the indicators of national consolidation; use content analysis to identify the symbolic interpretations of the words Russia, citizen and patriot; analyze contradictions in the national identity of the youth. The article presents the following most important findings of the study: 1) national (civil) identity dominates other forms of social identification of the youth; 2) in the structure of social identities, confessional identity is insignificant, while there is negative distancing towards representatives of Islam; 3) ethnic and ethno-national radicalism is typical for men; 4) compared to 2011, the positive trend of statist attitudes and the negative trend of critical attitudes to power are obvious; 5) the perceived norm and attitudinal behavior of the youth are not quite consistent; 6) gender affects the level and type of both ethnic and national identity.

Abstract. How immigrants define their ethnicity and nationality is relevant for integration: They can identify with their ethnic group, the receiving society, and a combination of both. A longitudinal study with elementary-school children with migration background ( N = 200; age 9–10) in Germany investigated the predictors and stability of ethnic and national identities. Ethnic identity was more highly endorsed than national identity. National and dual identities were compatible (i.e., positively related), whereas ethnic identity was compartmentalized (i.e., unrelated to national and dual identities). Contact with Germans predicted national identity over time, but not vice versa. Thus, the study contributes to a better understanding of multiple social identities of young ethnic minority children in light of social psychological theories of social identity development.

In the era of globalization and cultural interaction, the themes of national identity and historical trauma gain prominence in literature. Vasily Shukshin, an esteemed Russian writer and filmmaker, adeptly addresses these themes through his portrayal of the Russian countryside and the lives of ordinary people. His works provide a deep understanding of cultural interactions and the effects of globalization on individuals and society. Shukshin explores complex issues of human existence, such as the search for meaning, the struggle to preserve tradition, and resistance to cultural assimilation. His storytelling offers valuable insights into contemporary global challenges, making his work highly relevant for literary studies.This article presents a literary analysis of Vasily Shukshin's short stories, with a focus on how themes of national identity and historical trauma influence the narrative and character development. The research is innovative in its approach, intertwining these themes to assess their impact on character formation and plot progression. It highlights Shukshin's significant contributions to Russian literature and his role in elucidating Russian national identity and historical memory.The study finds that national identity in Shukshin's works is deeply intertwined with the culture and traditions of the Russian village, while historical trauma reflects the repercussions of significant events on individuals' lives and consciousness. The interaction of these themes forms unique life stories of the characters, allowing for a deeper understanding of the Russian psyche and its connection to the past. This analysis underscores the importance of Shukshin's works in the context of Russian literature and their contribution to the understanding of Russian national identity and historical memory.

In this article we question recent psychological approaches that equate the constructs of citizenship and social identity and which overlook the capacity for units of governance to be represented in terms of place rather than in terms of people. Analysis of interviews conducted in England and Scotland explores how respondents invoked images of Britain as “an island” to avoid social identity constructions of nationality, citizenship, or civil society. Respondents in Scotland used island imagery to distinguish their political commitment to British citizenship from questions relating to their subjective identity. Respondents in England used island imagery to distinguish the United Kingdom as a distinctive political entity whilst avoiding allusions to a common or distinctive identity or character on the part of the citizenry. People who had moved from England to Scotland used island imagery to manage the delicate task of negotiating rights to social inclusion in Scottish civil society whilst displaying recognition of the indigenous population's claims to distinctive national culture and identity.

The subject of this study is the process of transformation of forms of national and subjective identity in the conditions of globalization. The aim of the study is to identify the specifics of the formation of coherent identity under the influence of the challenges of contemporary globalization and limited resources of the national state. The scientific novelty of the research consists in the analysis of new types of social representations in the crisis of national states and construction of the mechanism of cultural inheritance in the model of democratic citizenship. Today, national identity is not a form of positioning of social communities, where one discourse dominates. In reality, national identity includes a complex set of competing models of representation focused on different ideals and values. In the conditions of contemporary globalization, a coherent type of multiple identity is formed, which is able to combine the universal principles of democracy with the basic values of local cultures. To an even greater extent, globalization has changed the mechanism of constructing subjective identity, abolished its boundaries and created a plurality of forms of its representation. Globalization has caused a change of ways of identification of events and phenomena by individuals, has generated inefficiency of social institutions, ephemeral cultural manifestations, has generated a crisis of meanings, and as a consequence, a change in the basic paradigms of life of the individual and society. Everyday life has become a complex of reactions to abstract schemes that cultivate changing social and identity attachments of the individual.

Due to its diverse nature, being an Indonesian is sometimes confusing as it entails overlapping national, ethnic and religious identity. By using a social representation approach, online survey research involving 114 Indonesians was carried out to explore these questions: How do Indonesians negotiate their ethnic, religious and national identity? What identity markers should one possess to claim being an Indonesian? And lastly, who is the nationalist? Research findings suggest that national and ethnic identity as well as ethnic and religious identity were consensual, while the relation between religious and national identity was emancipated. It is also found that being a Muslim and possessing a stronger sense of ethnic identity would increase the likelihood of being a prouder Indonesian, while being a female, living abroad for 5–10 years, being a nationalist Muslim and embracing transnational Islamic movements reduced the probability of having a stronger sense of national identity.

ABSTRACTWe examined the importance of parental culture maintenance behaviour, bilingualism, ethnic identity, and national identity for the well-being of adolescents in multicultural Indonesia. We tested a mediation model in which the link between (perceived) parental culture maintenance behaviour and well-being is mediated through speaking Bahasa at home and national identity on the one hand and speaking the ethnic language at home and ethnic identity on the other hand. Participants were 448 adolescents (261 females) from four Indonesian ethnic groups (Chinese from Java, Chinese from North Sumatra, Batak, and Javanese), aged between 12 and 19 years (Mage = 15.92 years). We found support that parental culture maintenance was positively related to both ethnic and national identity, was correlated to the usage of ethnic language at home, but not correlated to usage of Bahasa Indonesia at home, language usage was not associated with identity; there was no link between parental culture maintenance behaviour and usage of languages at home with well-being, but both national and ethnic identity were positively associated with children’s well-being across groups. We conclude that parental culture maintenance, ethnic identity, and national identity are important for the well-being of adolescents, whereas speaking the language is independent from well-being and ethnic identity.

Theater and performance are powerful tools for definition of national and ethnic identity. Nation, nationalism, ethnicity and identity are all unstable terms and concepts. In the 17th through the 20th centuries, there occurred a fundamental imposition of Western culture onto already-existent Asian cultures. Much of contemporary Asian nations and cultures saw their original, precolonial forms shaped and transformed first by colonialism, then by war, and finally by a postcolonial period starting in the postwar period through the early 21st century. In the wake of imperialism and colonialism, a number of Asian nations and cultures have used indigenous arts to reassert an unbroken sense of national or ethnic identity, rejecting Western models of theater while simultaneously embracing Western modes of performance and critique. Often, modern Asian nations would either invent traditions or move a tradition out of its original context in order to reimagine that tradition for the entire nation. National identity versus ethnic identity versus cultural identity, which can be the same or completely mutually exclusive within a community or individual, varies depending on the ethnic construction of the state and the nation. The theater thus both shapes national understanding of identities and, in turn, is shaped by it. Models for understanding nation, ethnicity, and identity can be found by examining individual case studies: the Japanese sense of the Japanese and the Other who lives in Japan (specifically Zainichi or Korean Japanese); the separate national identities of the two Koreas, which also shapes and is shaped by their individual sense of ethnic identity; the multicultural, multinational, and multiethnic nature of Singaporean society; and the Asian diaspora creating new variants on national and ethnic identity. Theater can both construct or challenge national identities, and it can also be exploited to assert a specific identity in the service of the nation-state or dominant ethnic group. Globalization and technology also challenge and reinforce ideas of nation, culture, and ethnicity.

The number of immigrants and children born to immigrant parents in Europe has risen steadily. Related to debates as to how best integrate immigrants, research points to the importance of investigating the structure as well as antecedents and consequences of immigrants' multiple identities. Here, we explore the relationship between three different identities endorsed by adolescent Turkish‐origin immigrants in Germany: ethnic identity (i.e., Turkish identity), national identity (i.e., German identity), and dual identity (i.e., German–Turkish identity). In two studies, Turkish‐origin adolescents in Germany (Study 1: N = 91, age: M = 15.18, SD = 0.97; Study 2: N = 95, age: M = 15.26, SD = 0.90) completed measures of multiple identities, contact with native Germans, and feelings of being integrated in Germany. Results show that adolescents' dual identity was positively related to their national identity but negatively related to their ethnic identity. Ethnic and national identities were also negatively related. Further, when Turkish‐origin students had more contact with native Germans, they felt more at home in Germany, mediated by their national and dual identity. Results are discussed in terms of the role that identity construction plays in the integration of immigrants into host societies.

西元2000年之後，台灣民間的婦女團體開始關注〈消除一切對婦女歧視公約〉(Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW)，包括台灣婦女團體全國聯合會、中華民國婦女協會、民進黨婦女部、勵馨基金會、中華民國基督教女青年會協會等許多團體，以舉辦研討會、記者會、對政府的遊說與倡議等方式，希望台灣能批准CEDAW，將此公約規範引入台灣。除了上述以將公約視為一整體而倡議加入的行動外，亦有如日日春互助關懷協會、移民/移住人權修法聯盟、南洋台灣姐妹會、外籍配偶成長關懷協會等團體，於具體議題的論述中直接援引特定的CEDAW規範，作為向政府抗議或遊說的論據。這篇論文中，我採取廣泛的定義方式，將以任何形式關注、使用CEDAW的行動，泛稱為「台灣CEDAW運動」。其後，民間團體的倡議加入CEDAW行動得到了政府的回應，我國立法院於2007年正式通過簽署CEDAW，陳水扁總統隨即公佈了加入書，並由外交部委由友邦依據公約規定將加入書轉送聯合國秘書處。但當時的聯合國秘書長潘基文援引聯合國2758號決議，拒絕台灣存放加入書。在此之後台灣朝野仍持續行動，除了政府於2009年3月完成初次國家報告，並邀請三位前CEDAW委員會成員來台審查外，民間團體亦組成工作坊，以「對婦女之暴力(Violence Against Women)」為主題撰寫替代報告(Alternative Report)。 這篇論文的核心關懷，是探究為什麼台灣民間婦女團體會在此一時點看見CEDAW，關注CEDAW，進而倡議加入？這些團體行動者的面貌、特質是否相同？如果有所差異，是何種機緣促使這些異質行動者，在CEDAW議題上現身同一歷史舞台？ 論文中，我首先以歷史素材，分析台灣戰後政府與民間婦女團體在「國際參與」領域的情況，尤其聚焦於CEDAW運動中各團體的歷史，嘗試發現這些行動者過去與現在的連結。分析歷史連結的基礎，並簡介CEDAW的內涵與機制後，我將台灣CEDAW運動出現的原因，區分為客觀因素與主觀因素。客觀因素包括政黨輪替後新政府渴望推展國際參與所形成的政治機會、政府改造、CEDAW公約本身對所有國家開放的特性、性別主流化相關建制的推動等，而倡議團體與個人所累積或創造的資源，包括國際連結資源、運動策略經驗、金錢資源等，對於開展行動亦有影響。 然而，我認為促使台灣政府與民間團體於千禧年後關注CEDAW，並積極行動的主因是主觀的認同因素。我將CEDAW運動中的認同因素區分為國族認同、女性�女性運動者認同、普世人權價值認同。並且主張國族認同是驅動CEDAW運動出現的核心因素，也是民間團體的倡議獲得政府立即回應的主要原因。而此種國族認同的基礎內涵，是以台灣本位爭取國際地位的認同，並且將國家主權、民主、人權、進步等概念納入想像藍圖。誠然，國族認同作為運動主要的驅力，使運動得到了許多政治部門的回應與承諾，可是也正因為如此，導致「主流」的CEDAW運動初期過度強調「簽署公約」的形式路線，而且無論運動資源或論述詮釋的權力，都不均衡地集中於過去已有相當國際連結能力的團體。使得台灣的CEDAW倡議行動，較無法呈現異質多元的聲音。 根據以上的分析討論，我主張台灣行動者應該更具體、更批判性、創造性地使用CEDAW。我們不但應該看見基進詮釋CEDAW公約的可能，更應該在仰望國際人權規範、渴望國際參與與認同時，以台灣透過民主化進程產生的異質多元特性，作為台灣現身於國際舞台上值得驕傲的獨特資本。我認為看見並承認本土歷史中的多元差異，以及台灣本土相對於其他國家的差異，並基於這些差異批判性地理解國際人權公約，才能真正使國際人權公約於本土生根。

Social representations of history were investigated using surveys among university populations of ethnic Malays, Chinese, and Indians in Singapore and Malaysia. Representations of history and historical leaders tended to be hegemonic or consensual, showing low levels of conflict across ethnicity and nationality, even regarding the separation of these two nations. Tendencies towards in‐group favoritism and ontogeny were slight, but statistically significant on some measures. National and ethnic identity were positively correlated, with ethnic identity stronger than national identity in Malaysia, and strongest among Malays in Malaysia. National identity was strongest among Chinese in Malaysia, followed by Chinese in Singapore. Results of regression analyses on national identity suggest that ethnicity is more sensitive in Malaysia than in Singapore. Results are interpreted through the frameworks provided by social representations theory and social identity theory. It is argued that hegemonic representations of history are associated with positive correlations between national and ethnic identity.

Current research aims to investigate the relationship between national and ethnic identities and the factors affecting their formation in Yasouj city of predominantly Lur.The research was carried out using a quantitative-survey method, and the research tool is questionnaire.National identity was measured in terms of geographical, political, historical, religious, linguistic, and cultural dimensions, and ethnic identity was assessed with indicators such as more focus on city, language, courtesy, and local habits.The research data were collected out of a sample of 383 people aged between 20 and 40 years old residing in Yasouj, which were selected by a regular random method.The results from the bivariate analysis indicated that there is a significant relationship between demographic variables including religious adherence, social interaction, social confidence, social-economic base, and the use of collective tools, and national and ethnic identity.The relationship between national and ethnic identity is direct and significant, indicating the importance of rapid social changes in identity formation and possibility of co-existence of different identities in the contemporary society.The multivariate analysis showed that the variables namely adherence to religious values, social confidence, ethnic identity, domestic and foreign audio-visual mass media totally explained 50% of changes in national identity.In addition, the variables namely religious adherence values, education, written mass media, age, and social confidence have explained 19.6% of changes in ethnic identity.