Abstract
The limits to human lifespan are a widely discussed topic. Yet, later-life mortality and longevity are generally studied from a genetic perspective, while the social dimension has received less attention. This paper gives a systematic overview of trends in later-life mortality and longevity for cohorts that were born in the late 18th and 19th century, and shows that the average population and the top survivors from cohorts born between 1800 and 1850 were already growing older. These improvements in human survival were similar for both of the sexes among the top survivors, whereas gender equality in the life expectancy at age 50 grew rapidly in cohorts born after 1880. Differences between populations were determined by the disease environment, availability of food, and local diets, while lifestyles and social support from spouses and kin affected later-life expectancy and longevity within these populations. These findings have major implications on how we view the demographic and epidemiological transition, and forces us to reconsider existing explanations for improvements in survival during the 19th century. However, in order to find out the determinants of later-life mortality, external validity of results, blind spots due to missing data, and familial clustering need to be studied more thoroughly.
Highlights
Since the second half of the 19th century, mankind has been breaking the limits to life expectancy1 (Oeppen & Vaupel 2002)
The degree to which later-life mortality and longevity are man-made is further stressed by the growth of a gender gap in later-life expectancy for cohorts born in the second half of the 19th century
Caselli, Peracchi, Barbi & Lipsi (2003) found that the percentage of men and women living to be 70, 80, and 90 years old grew linearly for the 1861-1901 cohort. This suggests that the universal increases in later-life expectancy and longevity in Western Europe had already occurred for cohorts that were born in the early 19th century, and possibly earlier
Summary
Since the second half of the 19th century, mankind has been breaking the limits to life expectancy (Oeppen & Vaupel 2002). With the ever-increasing digitization of data on 19th-century populations, a diverse body of literature has grown in which researchers use microdata to study later-life mortality (life expectancy at age 50) or longevity (top percentage of long-lived cohort members) in 19th-century cohorts. This paper discusses the studies that have applied these microdata against the background of the lengthening lives in pre20th-century cohorts and interprets how novel insights give new directions for future research. Available historical demographic data on later-life mortality and longevity in 19th-century cohorts are presented to find out when people started to live longer. The degree to which later-life mortality and longevity are man-made is further stressed by the growth of a gender gap in later-life expectancy for cohorts born in the second half of the 19th century. I will discuss all findings, their validity, and implications for further research for each of these subfields in order to construct a framework that gives direction for further research
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