L’arcivescovo Turpino nella Chanson de Roland e nel Rolandslied

The full version of the Bible was first published in Estonian in 1739. In comparison with the neighbouring Protestant countries this is a very late date. However, serious attempts to translate the Bible into Estonian were made already in the 17th century. There are two manuscripts from the 17th century which contain translations of the Old Testament. The older manuscript dating from the middle of the century has been – unlike e.g. the Finnish Bible which had been translated from Luther’s German version – translated directly from Hebrew, by Johannes Gutslaff. Also the 1739 Estonian version was translated directly from the Hebrew version. As is widely known, Luther was of the opinion that a translator should not follow the structure of the source language&&instead, he must use the fluent and pure target language. The Estonian translations followed strictly the Hebrew version, which resulted in the fact that still today, Estonian phraseology has Hebrew influence.

The German versions of the Bible in comparison. Abstract: The various German translations of the Bible and their genesis along the history are presented. In the first place are mentioned the manuscripts and the Greek, Latin, Gothic, ancient English and German versions existing before the 15th Century. This is followed by an explanation of the role played by the Protestant Reformation of the Church in the 16th Century and the invention of printing with movable characters as reasons for the creation of new translations. The texts which were used in the translations are described, namely the masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible and some of the Septuaginta for the Old Testament and the critical edition by Erasmus of Rotterdam of the Textus Receptus for the New Testament. The translating work of Luther and the Zurich workshop and their respective context within the History of the Reformation are reported, as well as the importance of Luther’s translation as a model for the translation in other languages of countries, which followed the Lutheran Reformation. The German versions are compared with each other and with versions in other languages of countries following the Calvinist Reformation. The consequences of Luther’s version on the development of a German National identity are analysed. The main German translations presently used are quoted and briefly characterized.

The author analyzes three waves of the crisis of democracy during the 20th and early 21st centuries. The first crisis of democracy in the early 20th century is caused by the emergence and development of public politics, which challenged the possibility to govern the masses having conflict potential, it balanced the power of the people and universal suffrage with the control of the media in order to maintain the stability of political system. The second wave of the crisis of democracy (the last third of the 20th century) is associated with the destruction of the conventional world and the weakening of the nation-state; and its markers were: the imbalance between the branches of government, the domination of economics over politics, the predominance of equality over freedom, the problematic implementation of human rights, and, as a consequence, the inability to put into practice the national form of democracy. The third wave of crisis (early the 21st century) is accompanied by the transformation of democracy into post-democracy, in which the power of the people is replaced by the power of global capital, and the illusion of consent is reinforced by the prohibition of alternative points of view and the narrowing of the space of issues allowed for discussion in the name of public security. The crisis of the policy to achieve peace through the transformation of the balance of powers into a balance of interests called into question the principles of democracy. On the contrary, post-democracies justify the use of force to spread democracy around the world, and they take an active part in contemporary military conflicts, which can rightly be defined as hybrid proxy wars. Drawing on J. Habermas’s concept of communicative rationality, the author concludes that to overcome the crisis of democracy it is necessary to accept the very possibility of an alternative to this form of government and allow to discuss these previously marginalized issues as well as to maintain the return of the majority to genuine communication and politics, contribute to its enlightenment.

In the 18th century, the fate of allografts and their role in bone formation became of interest to many orthopaedic surgeons. A controversy over the science of osteogenesis, the formation of bone, had emerged following the opposing views of Duhamel and von Haller. Duhamel noted that the periosteum had a deep osteogenic layer, which he termed the "cambium layer". However, von Haller claimed the opposite: the periosteum was not osteogenic. In the 19th century, Ollier performed comprehensive studies on the periosteum. Ollier's experiments were published in two volumes entitled "Traite Experimental et clinique de la regeneration des os" in 1867. His conclusion was that transplanted periosteum and bone survived and could become osteogenic under proper conditions. The controversy was furthered by MacEwen who believed, contrary to Duhamel and Ollier, that the periosteum had no osteogenetic power and was purely a limiting membrane giving direction to bone growth but taking no active part in it. This manuscript describes this period of controversies about the osteogenesis of the transplanted bone, marrow and periosteum that would eventually die or not and be replaced by surrounding tissue or be active for osteogenesis. Whether bone grafts are a form of passive scaffolding or active in osteogenesis was the main question about auto and allografts in the 18th and 19th centuries. In response to this challenge, many papers were written to defend each side of the argument.

PÁL KADOSA (1905) represents the German tradition among his contemporaries, and in this regard he might be said to continue the course indicated by Weiner and Jemnitz. But whereas Weiner's music is anchored in the romantics and Jemnitz's in the expressionist school of Reger and Schoenberg, Kadosa's model was the music of the young German post-First-World-War school, of which Hindemith was the leading figure. Another factor contributing a great deal to the formation of his idiom was his being a practical musician, a pianist of considerable gifts. These two considerations, viz. Hindemith and the piano, inevitably dominate the instrumental character of his music as a whole. What distinguishes his work from that of the German father-figure is the strong influence of Hungarian folk-music in the rhythmic element of his music. It came via Bartók, since Kadosa did not take active part in folk-music-collecting. His mature personal style is predominantly contrapuntal, terse and detached to the point of austerity; and since he thinks in patterns of motivic figurations, it possesses marked rhythmic and dynamic power. The baroque revival of the nineteen-twenties and 'thirties—whose German version was associated with an impersonal “New Objectivity”—is reflected in his series of concertos—including four for the piano, two for the violin, one for the viola, and one for string-quartet and orchestra—precise, often epigrammatic in utterance, showing a kind of restrained and diffident lyricism that is so typical of Kadosa, and conceived in terms of brilliantly effective instrumental writing.

In approaching the subject of the Protestant presence in Latin America, I believe it is necessary to take a missiological perspective. In recent times, Latin American Protestantism has come to the fore in the secular and academic press mainly because of its irruption onto the political scene. Focusing on this aspect of Protestant life, reporters and scholars have not paid attention to the totality of the Protestant phenomenon. If we add to this the hostility most Marxist and Catholic historians and social scientists we can understand why the accumulated volume of literature on the subject presents a distorted and frequently uninformed picture of Latin American Protestants. Only a missiological approach can provide a clearer holistic picture of Protestant reality. A missiological approach is inter-disciplinary. It looks at missionary acts from the perspectives of the biblical sciences, theology, history and the social sciences. It aims to be systematic and critical, but it starts from a positive stance towards the legitimacy of the Christian missionary task as pan of the fundamental reason for the being of the church. From this perspective, during this century Latin American Protestantism has been a source of puzzling surprises. Its numerical growth has gone beyond the expectations of the pioneers who introduced it, but the way in which that growth took place has been very different from what the pioneers planned. Since its appearance in the 19th century, the Roman Catholic Church has used every available means at her disposal in order to stop it, but at this end of the 20th century, some of the most dynamic sectors in that same church are adopting many of the missionary methodologies that Protestantism brought to Latin America or developed here. A missiological approach gives the observer a wider frame of reference :o place his/her perception of the surprising and at moments contradictory nature of Latin American Protestantism. Ours is the second great century of Protestant global missionary advance. As Latourette, the classic historian of missions, has demonstrated, during the 19th and 20th centuries, missionary vitality in the Protestant world bore the marks of the Evangelical ethos.(1) The Protestant missionary movement was born from the ranks of Pietism in central Europe and from the Spiritual Awakenings in the 19th century English speaking world. For Latourette, missionary activity usually stems from spiritual vitality and he submits that the vital minorities of Protestants in Europe are mainly from a tradition. Growth outside Europe corresponded to the same stream, This means that world Protestantism tends increasingly to have a puritan-pietistic-evangelical stance.(2) In choosing these three terms: puritan, pietistic and evangelical, Latourette offers a description of the kind of evangelicalism which has kept the initiative in missionary activity in the world. We may look at these terms from a missiological perspective which includes their theological content, as well as their sociological and methodological components. Thus we find in them the ethos of a movement which emphasizes individual conversion and belief followed by moral transformation, which reacts against formal religiosity bred by sacramentalism, and which creates structures that allow rank and file Christians to take part in the missionary activities of the church. At the end of this century, it has become evident that the vitality, relevance and creativity of both Catholic and Protestant churches have shifted to the South. They are now the marks of churches in Africa, Latin America and parts of Asia, right at the time when European Christianity seems paralyzed at a deadlock and becomes affected by the fatigue that accompanies a postChristendom situation. These Southern forms of Christianity that developed out of the missionary thrust of Europeans and North Americans, have now taken a form of their own. …

The turn of the 19th and 20th centuries became an era of crucial socio-economic changes for the United States. One of the main consequences of these processes was a gradual rethinking of the position of women in society, which led to a serious revision of beauty standards, in which women themselves now took an active part. At the same time, the markets of large cities was actively saturated with the offer of all kinds of goods and services that promised to gain external attractiveness. An important platform that provided space for both discussion and marketing was the rapidly developing mass media, which replaced the former party press. Living at the expense of revenues from advertising, the mass periodicals began to actively appeal to their female audience. The authors of polemic articles and advertisements used different arguments to convince the new readership. Quite often, the journalists turned to the legacy of Antiquity, which still preserved its high status. Based on the materials of mass periodicals of large American cities at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, this article shows how journalists used ancient history to promote self-care practices and advertise certain goods and services. It helps to appreciate rhetorical strategies employed by supporters and opponents of various features of the new woman's lifestyle and the place historical analogies occupied in their argumentation.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the fate of the family of non-baptized Astrakhan murzas/princes Timbaevs in the 18th – 20th centuries. The history of this ruling Turkic family, along with the Yusupovs, Urusovs, and Sheydyakovs, which traced its origin to Edigey, has not yet become a subject of special study. Methods and materials. The study is based on the analysis of unpublished documents on the history of the family, its representatives, their possessions, stored in the funds of the State Archive of the Astrakhan region. Analysis. Source study and genealogical research of documents allow us to present the composition of the Timbaev family, to characterize the attempts of its most active part in the dialogue with the Russian local and central authorities to assert their rights to the noble origin and land possessions in the 18th – 20th centuries, and to clarify the fate of the Timbaevs’ possessions in the Krasnoyarsk and Astrakhan districts of Astrakhan province. Results. Timbaevs, included by the Astrakhan nobles’ assembly in the lists of nobility compiled in the late 18th – early 19th centuries, were not approved in these rights and also could not take advantage of the opportunity to earn nobility in the Astrakhan Cossack Host. Collective land ownership and complication of property relations of the family members, custody over the estate, and conflicts with peasants became the reason for the withdrawal by the state department in the 1840s of most of the family lands in the Krasnoyarsk district. However, the land ownership in the Astrakhan district on the river Bakhtemir was a unique case of uninterrupted possession of land by one of the Timbaev families from the middle of the 17th century until 1917.

The sources speak eloquently about the extreme charity of the empresses from 5th century. They built temples, orphanages and supported their work. Their mission was spread all over the empire, which is proved by the discovered coins of theirs. The golden coins which they donated not only supported the church financially, but also helped their activity in disseminating and establishing the Christian religion. The signs of Christ complement and in separate cases prevail over their pragmatic properties. The difference about the view about the role of the monetary units of the empresses is that their “spiritual value” in 5th century was also an important means for the state politics not only a medium of exchange. The support of the religion life at places had not only financial dimensions, which for that age was of extreme importance. That process underwent in an atmosphere of impoverishing of the town population, as the church advanced economically with the help of the state. That explains the fact why in the church buildings and around them such a great amount of coins from 6th century has been found, but near the public ones they decreased at the end of 4th century. The discovery location of the coins of the empresses clearly shows the area and the sites, connected with charity and religious activities of the Augusts. At the dissemination and establishing the Christianity the state used all possible means. It was imperative because of the heterogeneous ethnic structure of the population of Trace and Dacia during 4th-6th centuries, which created conditions for arising of various diversions from the Christian religion – the heresies. The inspection of the location of findings golden coins of empresses shows that they were discovered in/or at a short distance from the region of the Late Antiquity settlements and fortresses: Abrittus (now Razgrad), Beroe – Augusta Traiana (now Stara Zagora) Nicopolis ad Istrum – the old settlement near the village of Dichin, Kyustendil, Nicopolis ad Nestum (now Gotse Delchev), Strogovia (Kailuka – Pleven), Ryahovets, Sadovets, Tuida (now Sliven), Philipopolis (now Plovdiv), the fortress of Shumen. The listed places coincide with the territories with bishop centers, significant population and outstanding Christian temples from 4th and 5th centuries. It gives a good reason to search the connection between the gold in question, the cult artifacts and their religious meaning. During the Late Antiquity the role of the bishop institution increased rapidly, not only in the church life, but also in the civil ruling system. The area bishops began to take active part in the control of the towns, occupying a great deal of the town curia functions. That happened with the blessing of the emperor’s power, which gave such authority to the bishops, so that they were able to control and inspect various decisions of the non-clerical authorities. The topography of the monetary unit subject of the article is a good token in their interpretation as a means of propaganda of the still new Christian religion where the preliminary and dictatorial reasons of the emperor institution could be seen. The coins are subject of this study; they concentrate the ideological power in the image of еmpresses. Coupled with the Christian symbols they outline a spiritual vector in their dissemination. Thus the commercial role of money was combined with their spiritual mission to help the church establish the faith in Christ.

Although ergot had been used in obstetrics for several centuries, it was proposed for the treatment of migraine only in the 19th century. The British ENT-surgeon Edward Woakes (1837-1912) recommended ergot as a vasoconstricting agent for migraine and other neurogenic conditions associated with vasodilatation in 1868. He subscribed to the theory of vasodilatation by sympathetic deficit, presented in the early 1850s by Brown-Séquard and Claude Bernard. Du Bois-Reymond proposed vasoconstriction by sympathetic overactivity as the cause of migraine in 1860; Brown-Séquard opposed this in favour of vasodilatation. Vasodilatation due to sympathetic deficit in migraine was again supported by Möllendorf, with clinical evidence, in 1867. Woakes' paper of 1868 introduced ergot as a vasoconstrictor for the same condition. Reception abroad was prompt. A German version appeared in 1869, and Eulenburg cited Woakes in his textbook of 1871. Eulenburg presented the use of ergot for migraine as a routine measure in the second edition of his textbook in 1878, and in a paper published in 1883. The method was internationally accepted, but it became really popular only after the isolation of pure ergotamine in 1918, resulting in the first reliable compounds with stable properties and predictable effects. Contrary to Woakes' theory, in the early 20th century ergot was used for migraine because of its well-documented adrenolytic properties, as migraine was by then again believed to be a sympathotonic and vasospastic condition.

The paper aims to organise the issues concerning the great variety of manuscripts jointly described as the “election prophecy,” supposedly made by Georg Joachim Rheticus (1514–1574), an astronomer, astrologer, and the student of Nicolaus Copernicus. The study contains a proposal of a model showing how the original Latin text of the “prophecy,” the autograph of which has not been preserved to this day and which had the form of a horoscope diagram with commentary by Rheticus, underwent contamination and interpolation, while at the same time serving as the basis for the creation of two vernacular traditions of the text – Polish and German. The analysis of the preserved copies consists of the description of the most reliable witness of the “prophecy” tradition – the copy made in the 18th century by Wrocław-based Enlightenment historian Samuel Beniamin Klose on the basis of the available documents of Andrzej Dudycz, which introduced the text into wider circulation – and of the discussion of other accounts which can be found in European libraries. The transformations undergone by the text of the prophecy between late 16th century and early 18th century are depicted in source materials annexed to the paper, containing the editions of several Latin and Polish versions of the text, as well as its German version.

ЖИТТЄВИЙ ШЛЯХ, НАУКОВО-ПЕДАГОГІЧНА ТА ГРОМАДСЬКА ДІЯЛЬНІСТЬ ВОЛОДИМИРА ГАВРИЛОВИЧА СОКУРЕНКА (ДО 100-РІЧЧЯ ВІД ДНЯ НАРОДЖЕННЯ)

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