Kazakhstan's Silk Way media as cultural diplomacy: a case study of Silk Way Star and transnational media governance

Abstract. The Silk Road, a network of ancient trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean, was not just about commerce and goods. It served as a vibrant conduit for cultural exchange, fostering the intermingling of languages, traditions, and artistic expressions between diverse civilizations. Today, the spirit of the Silk Road is being revived in the form of the "New Silk Road," a Chinese-led initiative aimed at economic and infrastructural development across Asia. The revitalization of the Silk Road through China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) presents a unique opportunity for Central Asian nations, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, to leverage their rich cultural heritage for international engagement and economic development. This paper analyzes and compares the cultural diplomacy strategies employed by both countries on the New Silk Road, highlighting their distinct approaches and effectiveness in achieving their goals. Keywords: Cultural diplomacy, New Silk Road, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Belt and Road Initiative, soft power, tourism, regional cooperation.

This article examines Afghanistan's role in the Silk Road and its impact on the country's historical, cultural, economic, and geographical transformations. Due to its strategic geographical position in the heart of Asia, Afghanistan has historically served as a bridge connecting various civilizations of the East and West. This role has allowed Afghanistan to experience extensive commercial and cultural influences from the Silk Road. This review article analyzes the historical, cultural, and economic impacts of the Silk Road on Afghanistan and assesses the country’s role as a strategic hub in trade and cultural exchanges between Asia and Europe. This study employs a narrative review approach, conducting a qualitative analysis of previous research by compiling and examining information from various historical, geographical, and cultural sources. The key findings of this study indicate that Afghanistan played a fundamental role as a bridge for commercial and cultural exchanges between the East and West along the Silk Road. Its geographical location positioned it along major trade routes, including those involving silk, spices, and metals. Furthermore, the cultural and religious exchanges, including the introduction of various religions and artistic and linguistic influences, have been significant throughout Afghanistan’s history. Cities such as Balkh, Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul were recognized as major trade and cultural centers along this route. The findings of this research highlight that Afghanistan, due to its strategic position along the Silk Road, played an unparalleled role in facilitating cultural and commercial development among civilizations. The country not only served as a key node in economic exchanges but also contributed to the enrichment of diverse cultures in the region. Future research should focus on conducting a more detailed analysis of the cultural, social, and political impacts of the Silk Road on Afghanistan and the broader region, as well as examining contemporary trends in Afghanistan’s regional and global relations.

This article examines Afghanistan's role in the Silk Road and its impact on the country's historical, cultural, economic, and geographical transformations. Due to its strategic geographical position in the heart of Asia, Afghanistan has historically served as a bridge connecting various civilizations of the East and West. This role has allowed Afghanistan to experience extensive commercial and cultural influences from the Silk Road. This review article analyzes the historical, cultural, and economic impacts of the Silk Road on Afghanistan and assesses the country’s role as a strategic hub in trade and cultural exchanges between Asia and Europe. This study employs a narrative review approach, conducting a qualitative analysis of previous research by compiling and examining information from various historical, geographical, and cultural sources. The key findings of this study indicate that Afghanistan played a fundamental role as a bridge for commercial and cultural exchanges between the East and West along the Silk Road. Its geographical location positioned it along major trade routes, including those involving silk, spices, and metals. Furthermore, the cultural and religious exchanges, including the introduction of various religions and artistic and linguistic influences, have been significant throughout Afghanistan’s history. Cities such as Balkh, Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul were recognized as major trade and cultural centers along this route. The findings of this research highlight that Afghanistan, due to its strategic position along the Silk Road, played an unparalleled role in facilitating cultural and commercial development among civilizations.

Deepwater regions have emerged as pivotal domains for global oil and gas exploration and development, serving as strategic alternatives to conventional resources. The Silk Road region is distinguished by its abundant oil and gas reserves and stands as a leading arena for worldwide exploration and development in the oil and gas sector. Since 2012, a series of atmospheric fields have been discovered in the deep sea of the Luwuma Basin and the Tanzania Basin, with cumulative recoverable reserves reaching 4.4 × 1012 and 8.3 × 1011 m3, including multiple oil and gas fields ranking among the top ten global discoveries at that time. Profound advancements have been achieved in the exploration of deepwater oil and gas reserves along the Silk Road. However, deepwater oil and gas exploration presents challenges, such as high development costs and risks, leading to certain areas remaining underexplored and exhibiting a relatively low level of exploration activity, thereby hinting at considerable untapped potential. Deepwater sedimentary basins along the Silk Road predominantly adhere to a distribution pattern characterized as “one horizontal and one vertical”. The “horizontal” dimension refers to the deepwater basin grouping within the Neo-Tethys tectonic domain, primarily extending from east to west. Conversely, the “vertical” dimension denotes the deepwater basin grouping along the East African continental margin, predominantly extending from north to south. Recent discoveries of deepwater oil and gas reserves validate the presence of foundational elements within Silk Road basins conducive to the formation of substantial oil and gas reservoirs and the establishment of efficient migration pathways. Despite these achievements, exploration activities in deepwater oil and gas resources along the Silk Road remain relatively limited. Future exploration endeavors in deepwater regions will predominantly focus on identifying structural and lithological traps. In the deepwater areas of the Bay of Bengal, the emphasis is on lithological traps formed by Neogene turbidite sandstone deposits. In the deepwater regions of Pakistan, the focus shifts to lithological traps emerging from Neogene bio-reefs and river-channel sandstone accumulations. Along the deepwater coastline of East Africa, the focus is on lithological traps formed by nearshore Mesozoic–Cenozoic bio-reefs and seafloor turbidite sandstone formations. Within the deepwater regions of Southeast Asia, the primary objective is to locate large structural-type oil and gas fields. Analyzing the characteristics of oil and gas discoveries in deepwater areas aims to enhance the theory of the control of the formation of deepwater oil and gas, providing valuable insights for predicting future exploration directions.

The Silk Road, an ancient network of trade and cultural exchange, has been a subject of significant scholarly interest, particularly in China, Russia, and Mongolia. This paper delves into the skilled practice that underpinned the operation of two major tea roads, emphasizing the continuity of the Silk Road's legacy. It argues for a new approach to the study of cross-cultural exchanges by examining the knowledge systems that supported the movement, adaptation, and exchange of goods and ideas across the Eurasian continent. The author introduces two conceptual tools: "Silk Roadness" to describe the aspects of knowledge reflected in the Silk Road's operation, and "Silk Road+" to denote the transformation that the Silk Road brought to knowledge systems. The paper posits that the Silk Road facilitated the formation, selection, and evolution of knowledge, endowing it with specific functions and creating specialized spaces for its practice. The study focuses on the Eurasian Tea Road ("万里茶道") and the Tea-Horse Road ("茶马古道"), examining the commercial cities, transportation methods, and the specialized skills that evolved along these routes. The author conducted field research in key locations such as Zhangjiakou and Qixian in the Eurasian Tea Road, and in Pu’er and Ya’an along the Tea-Horse Road, gathering information on historical sites, documents, artifacts, and traditional crafts. The paper highlights the distinct roles of Zhangjiakou and Qixian in the Eurasian Tea Road, where Qixian was a hub for Shanxi merchants, and Zhangjiakou served as a critical junction for trade between agricultural and nomadic regions. The author also discusses the Pu'er, Ya’an and Kangding in the Tea-Horse Ancient Road, which was key to the distribution of Yunnan and Sichuan teas to Tibet. The author identifies several key areas of skilled practice along the Silk Road, including commercial practical skills, transportation methods, trade infrastructure, communication and interaction skills, and product packaging and sales strategies. These skills were essential for the successful operation of the trade routes and for adapting to the diverse environments and cultural contexts encountered along the way. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of understanding the intricate relationship between the Silk Road and traditional knowledge systems. It calls for continued interdisciplinary research that incorporates the concepts of "Silk Roadness" and "Silk Road+" to build a more comprehensive framework for understanding the Silk Road as a vibrant network of knowledge evolution.

Exotic medicinal plants from the Silk Road promote the diversification of traditional Chinese medicines

This article explores the Silk Road, one of history’s most significant trade networks that bridged China and the West. The route fostered a vibrant cultural exchange, visible in the art and ornamental patterns that developed along its path. This study provides a cross-cultural perspective on ornamentation within the Great Steppe, particularly focusing on Kazakh baskur—a decorative band traditionally used in nomadic dwellings. Examining the symbolic and functional roles of baskur, the paper highlights both its artistic legacy and its broader cultural impact across the Silk Road region.

The study of the Silk Road by most history scholars has predominantly centered on the exchange of goods and ideas between the East and the West, creating a rich cultural exchange and interaction among people along the route. However, this paper takes a different approach by highlighting the role of Wu Zhu coins and their profound impact on facilitating trade and cultural exchange along the historic Silk Road. Wu Zhu coins likely played a significant role in promoting economic transactions. As a medium of exchange, they facilitated the movement of goods between different regions. Merchants could use these coins to purchase exotic wares from distant lands, thereby enhancing trade along the Silk Road. Moreover, the circulation of Wu Zhu coins also contributed to cultural exchange. The coins themselves may have carried symbolic meanings or designs that were shared and understood by different cultures. This could have led to the spread of artistic and cultural motifs, further enriching the tapestry of cultural interaction along the Silk Road. In short, while traditional studies of the Silk Road have emphasized the exchange of goods and ideas, this paper's focus on Wu Zhu coins offers a fresh perspective on the role of currency in facilitating trade and cultural exchange along this historic route.

The "Silk Road" is an international channel for human trade and cultural exchanges that spans the Eurasian continent and lasts for more than two thousand years. It has contributed to the social and economic development and cultural exchanges of Asian and European countries, especially ancient China. A huge contribution, it is like a geographical artery that flows the blood of human culture. The discovery of the Silk Road was a great initiative in the history of human civilization, and it was the longest international transport route between the East and the West in ancient times. This international transport route served as a bridge for political, economic and cultural communication among the countries along the Silk Road and facilitated the spread and exchange between the ancient Indian, Egyptian, Greek and Chinese civilizations. Throughout history, we can conclude that the Silk Road emerged in tandem with the opening of China. The prosperous period of the Silk Road was a period of great openness in Chinese history, as China's openness waned, the Silk Road gradually declined, and the Middle Ming Dynasty "closed" after interregional exchanges along the Silk Road largely stalled. With China's increasing openness in the 21st century, the Silk Road has experienced a renaissance.

Previous studies have shown that there were extensive genetic admixtures in the Silk Road region. In the present study, we analyzed 252 mtDNAs of five ethnic groups (Uygur, Uzbek, Kazak, Mongolian, and Hui) from Xinjiang Province, China (through which the Silk Road once ran) together with some reported data from the adjacent regions in Central Asia. In a simple way, we classified the mtDNAs into different haplogroups (monophyletic clades in the rooted mtDNA tree) according to the available phylogenetic information and compared their frequencies to show the differences among the matrilineal genetic structures of these populations with different demographic histories. With the exception of eight unassigned M*, N*, and R* mtDNAs, all the mtDNA types identified here belonged to defined subhaplogroups of haplogroups M and N (including R) and consisted of subsets of both the eastern and western Eurasian pools, thus providing direct evidence supporting the suggestion that Central Asia is the location of genetic admixture of the East and the West. Although our samples were from the same geographic location, a decreasing tendency of the western Eurasian-specific haplogroup frequency was observed, with the highest frequency present in Uygur (42.6%) and Uzbek (41.4%) samples, followed by Kazak (30.2%), Mongolian (14.3%), and Hui (6.7%). No western Eurasian type was found in Han Chinese samples from the same place. The frequencies of the eastern Eurasian-specific haplogroups also varied in these samples. Combined with the historical records, ethno-origin, migratory history, and marriage customs might play different roles in shaping the matrilineal genetic structure of different ethnic populations residing in this region.

In China’s Northern Silk Road (CNSR) region, dozens of frontier passes built and fortified at critical intersections were exploited starting at approximately 114 B.C. to guarantee caravan safety. Understanding the pattern of these pass sites is helpful in understanding the defense and trading system along the Silk Road. In this study, a scale optimization Binary Logistic Regression (BLR) archaeological predictive model was proposed to study the spatial pattern of CNSR frontier passes for understanding the critical placement of ancient defense and trading pass sites. Three hundred and fifty sample locations and 17 natural proxies were input into the model. Four strongly correlated factors were reserved as independent variables to construct the model, which was validated by 150 surveyed data and Kvamme’s Gain statistics. According to the variable selection and model optimization, the best spatial scale varies with the stability of the variables, such as 50 m and 1000 m, respectively, for the terrain and non-terrain variables. Clustering characteristics were identified with division overlapped with a 400 mm precipitation line using the site sensibility map. The high and medium probability areas were assembled along the Great Wall and the CNSR routes, especially in the western part, revealing that the model is also helpful to reconstruct the Silk Road routes.

This second edition of the Silk Roads Papers builds on the foundation laid by its predecessor, presenting a new collection of 11 innovative research projects that delve into the Silk Roads' rich legacy. Selected from over 800 proposals submitted by young researchers worldwide, these studies offer fresh perspectives on the cultural exchanges and interactions that shaped this historic network. Initiated by UNESCO and supported by the National Commission of the People's Republic of China for UNESCO, the Silk Roads Youth Research Grant has continued to inspire young scholars since its launch in 2021. As part of UNESCO's Silk Roads Programme, this publication continues the vital work of preserving and celebrating the shared heritage of the Silk Roads. Through the clever contributions of these emerging researchers, this edition enriches our understanding of the Silk Roads' history, ensuring its enduring relevance in our collective human narrative. UNESCO Catno: 0000393809 UNESCO landing page: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000393809

This trilogy on Architecture, Monuments and Urbanism is published within UNESCO’s ‘Thematic Collection of the Cultural Exchanges along the Silk Roads’, a multi-volume series which cultivates a better understanding of the rich history of the Silk Roads and their contemporary legacy and relevance. By harnessing the wealth of expertise UNESCO has developed on this subject, the Thematic Collection identifies and promotes the concrete fields and elements that have facilitated and been generated from the cultural interactions and exchanges along these historic routes. Furthering the aims of the UNESCO Silk Roads Programme, the Thematic Collection promotes intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding to achieve sustainable peace and development in the current globalized world. With each part dedicated to a unique theme – Architectural Influences, Cities along the Silk Roads, and Maritime Networks and Port Cities – this trilogy explores the multi-layered interactions between people and cultures along the Silk Roads. It highlights human creativity, conflicts, and natural disasters that shaped their distinctive architecture and urbanism from Eastern Asia to the Iberian Peninsula. Part I provides an overview of urban and cultural landscapes, focusing on building typologies and their architectural evolution through knowledge exchanges in technologies and materials. Part II examines the cities along the overland Silk Roads as hubs of co-existence, discussing each at its peak within key historical periods. Part III delves into ports along the maritime Silk Routes, illustrating human resilience in advancing maritime networks and urban developments that connected continents, seas, and oceans over centuries. UNESCO Catno: 0000393650 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000393650

As we all know, the Silk Road, as a famous ancient transportation route, was a trade line cross-Eurasian continent in history. Its name was from the delivery of silk. However, no Chinese ancient documents mentioned the name of “Silk Road”. German F. V. Richthofen (1933-1905) firstly used the term “Silk Road” in his book China, published in 1877. Afterwards, the name of “Silk Road” has been accepted universally and used by the world widely. The Silk Road was an ancient business channel, acrossing the middle of China and countries in Central Asia, gradually forming after Qian Zhang visited Western Regions twice, two thousand and one hundred years ago. The north-west land Silk Road started from Chinese ancient Capital Chang’an (now Xi’an), acrossing Central Asia, and reaching ancient Rome in Europe. It was a bridge for communication of politics, economy, and culture between ancient China and the Western. Before 11 Century, the Sino-Western silk trade mainly depended on the land transportation. During Han Dynasty, it was a competition between the Huns and the Hans for occupy the Silk road. The silk as a kind of material culture was a sort of intermediary for making people to know how to get along together.This article attempts to describe the Sino-Western silk trade conditions before and after the two missions of Qian Zhang to Western Regions (Xiyu), including archaeological evidences, kinds of silk and trade scale, transportation routes, trade participants, and so on.

The Silk Route, renowned for connecting the East and the West, served as a vital channel for trade and cultural exchange between ancient civilizations. During the Post-Mauryan period in India (approximately 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE), the significance of this transcontinental network expanded substantially. This research undertakes a comprehensive analysis of how the Silk Route functioned as both an economic lifeline and a cultural bridge during this transformative phase of Indian history.Following the decline of the Mauryan Empire, various regional powers such as the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, and Satavahanas emerged, each playing a crucial role in facilitating long-distance trade and cultural diplomacy. These polities not only encouraged commercial activity by securing trade routes and minting coinage but also acted as patrons of art, religion, and architecture that were influenced by and contributed to broader Silk Route exchanges. Commodities like silk, spices, ivory, textiles, and precious stones were exported from India, while imports included gold, horses, glassware, and fine ceramics from Central Asia, China, and the Mediterranean world.Beyond the exchange of goods, the Silk Route enabled the transmission of religious ideas—most notably Buddhism. The movement of Buddhist monks, pilgrims, and texts along these routes contributed to the spread of Indian philosophical and spiritual thought to regions such as Central Asia, China, and beyond. Artistic styles such as Gandhara and Mathura reflect a unique syncretism born from Indo-Greek and Central Asian influences, showcasing how trade catalyzed cultural fusion.This study draws upon archaeological findings, inscriptions, literary sources, and numismatic evidence to present a holistic picture of the era. It highlights the Silk Route’s role in transforming India into a cultural and economic powerhouse, linking it intricately with global historical processes. The paper argues that Post-Mauryan India’s participation in the Silk Route laid foundational stones for early globalization, making it a key contributor to the ancient world economy and intercultural dialogue.