Journeys through deathscapes in the contemporary city: exploring urban interiority in New York City and Istanbul

ABSTRACTThe global city literature is largely economic-centric and pays insufficient attention to the important issue of migration. Underpinned by a theoretical cross-fertilization of the global city and the knowledge city theses, this study investigates migrant knowledge workers (MKWs) in Melbourne, which has multiple identities as a global city, a knowledge city and a migration city. By doing so, this study aims to use migration as an alternative indicator of a global city and unpack the association between MKWs and the formation of a global knowledge city. It analyses Melbourne’s knowledge economy, and socio-economic attributes and spatial patterns of MKWs compared with other demographic groups. The results show that Melbourne has a higher concentration and stronger growth of knowledge intensive industries than Australia’s national average, for which MKWs provide the substantial workforce. Further, the MKWs demonstrate a different set of socio-economic attributes and settlement patterns that have profound impacts on local communities. This paper concludes with a discussion linking the global city, the knowledge city and migration theories through the nexus of MKWs, to provide a better understanding of associated urban transformations and inform policy implications for a contemporary global knowledge city.

Assemblage Theory, Ecology and the Legacy of the Early Garden City

Despite the best efforts of high modernist architects and urban designers to privilege openness and continuous space, to do away with enclosure altogether, the contemporary global city is as much an interior condition as an exterior one. Early manifestations of the ‘urban interior’ appeared in late-nineteenth-century America, when skyscraper architects designed elaborate lobbies mimicking and competing with the streets outside. In the post-war era the invention of new architectural technologies allowed these public-scaled interiors to extend beyond the boundaries of the city block. Air-conditioning, fluorescent lighting, the escalator and long-span structural systems made possible the vast interior spaces characteristic of our contemporary urban landscape: the shopping mall, the office complex and the airport terminal (Koolhaas, 1995, 2000). Intrigued by the possibility of these mega-scale interiors, late-modern architects and designers began to adopt strategies typically associated with urban design in their conceptualization of these spaces (Stickells, 2006; Rice, 2016). 1 At the same time, just as commercial interiors began to acquire the scale and form of the public street, huge swathes of exterior space came under the control of corporate entities or public-private groups such as Business Improvement Districts: organizations that employ almost domestic-scale housekeeping strategies, such as the installation of seating and lighting, in an attempt to render city streets safe and comfortable for middle-class consumers (Mallett, 1994).

Discourses on the urban interior recently have emerged as a series of provocations and experimentations that highlight the critical understanding of the urban realm from the interiority perspective. In the fast-moving development of modern global cities, the urban interior concept becomes increasingly important. Cities are fast becoming containers for contemporary spatial practice, with urban spaces becoming melting pots of diverse cultures and communities. Viewing urban settings from the interiority perspective allows us to comprehend unique local characters in particular contexts. This issue of Interiority presents a collection of works that illustrate the expanded understanding of the urban interior, especially in relation to cultural and spatial practice in urban contexts. This issue presents multiple perspectives on understanding the urban interior, raising arguments on how its spatial condition could perform as a container of cultural practice, while simultaneously offering possibilities on manoeuvring within the urban interior context through various ways of reading, interpretation and intervention. These perspectives and approaches promise further possibilities to expand our interior architectural practice in responding not only to current contemporary practice, but also to the future of urban inhabitation.

In a contemporary city, the importance of urban green space is consistently increasing, and there are growing demands to evaluate the present condition of urban parks and prepare a suitable provision policy for a green environment based on several standards. A number of researchers have measured the amenity properties of urban parks and identified several relationships between urban park user satisfaction and internal facilities. However, most existing studies have considered only the spatial properties or internal facility status as measurement standards to calculate the quantitative adequacy or satisfaction of park use but have not considered a number of diverse criteria. Therefore, in this study, the authors determine the main factors affecting the usage of urban parks by considering more diverse variables through statistical analysis. The multiple regression analyses show that some factors have significant effects on the number of annual visitors. This implies that well-constructed park facilities with decent quality, high accessibility and precision of spatial recognition affect the degree of use in addition to the quantitative elements and the surrounding environment, although social factors and environmental factors rarely affect the usage of regional parks.

Urban compositions, which organize spaces in contemporary cities, are often perceived by its users – citizens, only as a net of communication paths There are known initiatives by more or less formalised social groups, which, in order to bring hitherto unnoticed fragments of urban territories into public consciousness, support their revitalisation, as well as the efforts of local authorities (also professional) related to architectural and urban education of children. These actions should facilitate the reading of the composition of urban spaces, which seems necessary for their proper use. This task is easier when the composition is clear, based on a conscious perception of existing spatial structures. Crystalline structures are best highlighted by light. It builds a scenography of space, helps in its perception and brings out formally important points. This article presents selected aspects of the use of daylight and artificial light in urban interiors.

<p>Making cities resilient to natural disasters has become a priority for many policy makers. However, few studies of global cities analyze environmental vulnerability, disaster resilience, or urban flood resilience. This article analyzes global cities’ disaster resilience to flooding: New York City, London, Randstad, Tokyo, Shanghai, and Taipei. Case studies of those global cities will assist cities world-wide to prepare for the future. Results indicate that a hurricane could leave approximately 25% of New York City with severe economic losses by 2050. In London, 15% of the land is located in flood-prone areas. The Thames Barrier began to operate to protect London from flooding in 1982. However, this also encouraged housing development closer to the river, and resulted in higher exposure and vulnerability of flooding. Randstad has approximately 40% of its land areas in flood-prone areas, but Randstad is well prepared for flood risk reduction by land-use and environmental planning. In Tokyo, extensive urbanization suffers from severe damages once flooding occurs. In Shanghai, approximately 50% of its land is in flood-prone areas. Shanghai is the most vulnerable to floods of the coastal cities. Shanghai is still not well prepared in land-use and environment planning for urban flood resilience. In Taipei, flood-prone areas account for approximately 41% of its total land area in an extreme weather scenario. Among these six global cities, Asian cities should focus more on urban flood resilience since most of flooding hotspots by 2025 will be located in Asian nations with having weak policies and actions, inadequate risk information, insufficient budgets and poor implementation capacities (UNISDR 2013). This research suggests that global cities, particularly Asian cities, should promote policies of urban flood resilience, focusing on land-use and environmental planning for resilience as well as strengthening their organizations and funding to reduce disaster risk, maintain up-to-date risk and vulnerability assessment. Urban policies should include environmentally responsible development in the face of continued population and economic growth, and being resilient regarding natural disasters. Cities can also adopt a growth management policy to direct development away from flooding hotspots. Urban regeneration policy should require developers to improve storm sewers, water retention ponds, and permeable surfaces. Planning more space for rivers, more constructed wetlands, and more ecological ponds to accommodate water is important. Cities can promote an actuarially fair flood insurance program which can reflect actual flood risks. A bottom-up community resilience plan would assist achieving urban resilience.</p>

As global cities are the financial centers of globalized economy, they have attained much attention from global communities concerning local initiatives on environmental sustainability. Many global cities are vulnerable to global warming and adversities of climate change. In the United States, many cities and local government, including New York City, are taking their own initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emission, whereas European cities are built historically with compact nature which is more sustainable. This study conducts a comparative analysis on local sustainability policies in New York City and London and focuses on the efficiencies of the initiatives taken by these cities. The comparative analysis reveals that there are more similarities than differences between London and New York City in regards to sustainability goals. However, approaches toward achieving sustainability goals are different in London and New York City due to dissimilarities in geography, local cultures, and diverse environmental politics. In conjunction with the government regulations, behavioral change of the citizens is also pivotal for achieving sustainability outcomes in global cities.

Urban Development refers to many topics such as: increased population density, city size, and individual’s production, distribution of technology and the growth of commercial, industrial and service professions. Such development is linked to the coordination of social and cultural trends in order to achieve social progress and economical prosperity. Knowledge as a topic now is known as intellectual capital wich led to upgrae the concept of urban development to be extended into many fields of knowledge, for example, cultural, social and human development to move the level of community culture into a new better standard.
 The research adopted the urban transformation based on knowledge as an important factor in growth and development of contemporary cities. T he lack of studies regarding this was the research problem which led to a hypothesis set as (Knowledge-based urban development is an important tool in contemporary cities growth). Research aimed (to build a knowledge frame-work related to knowledge-based urban development impact on contemporary cities growth) through the following sequence:
 
 Creating a knowledge-based urban development literature review.
 Clarifying the relationship between the knowledge-based urban development and knowledge workers.
 Determining the theoretical framework to recognize level of impact of knowledge-based urban development on the city growth.
 Testing the hypothesis according to the theoretical framework in selecting designated cities such as Sydney & Melbourne were selected as a case study, since they represent good examples for knowledge cities.
 
 The research concluded that: knowledge-based urban development in cities depend on technical economic and community directories as a mechanism to achieve knowledge-based economy and build a new spatial relationship (Knowledge City).
 Keywords: knowledge-based urban development, knowledge, knowledge workers, knowledge-based economy, Knowledge City.
 Urban Development refers to many topics such as: increased population density, city size, and individual’s production, distribution of technology and the growth of commercial, industrial and service professions. Such development is linked to the coordination of social and cultural trends in order to achieve social progress and economical prosperity. Knowledge as a topic now is known as intellectual capital wich led to upgrae the concept of urban development to be extended into many fields of knowledge, for example, cultural, social and human development to move the level of community culture into a new better standard.
 The research adopted the urban transformation based on knowledge as an important factor in growth and development of contemporary cities. T he lack of studies regarding this was the research problem which led to a hypothesis set as (Knowledge-based urban development is an important tool in contemporary cities growth). Research aimed (to build a knowledge frame-work related to knowledge-based urban development impact on contemporary cities growth) through the following sequence:
 
 Creating a knowledge-based urban development literature review.
 Clarifying the relationship between the knowledge-based urban development and knowledge workers.
 Determining the theoretical framework to recognize level of impact of knowledge-based urban development on the city growth.
 Testing the hypothesis according to the theoretical framework in selecting designated cities such as Sydney & Melbourne were selected as a case study, since they represent good examples for knowledge cities.
 
 The research concluded that: knowledge-based urban development in cities depend on technical economic and community directories as a mechanism to achieve knowledge-based economy and build a new spatial relationship (Knowledge City).
 

A so-called global city that plays an important role in regional and global economic, political and cultural development should perform well in terms of its livability. The livability level of Beijing was compared with those of three acknowledged global cities, i.e., New York City, Greater London, and Tokyo-to to clarify whether Beijing has great potential to grow into a global city. From the aspects of social development, living standard and environmental quality, the livable level integrated index (LLII) was established in this paper to evaluate the urban livability, while the linear weighted sum was applied as the assessment model. After analyzing the situations of the four cities during 2000–2009, it was indicated that the LLIIs of Beijing, New York City, Greater London, and Tokyo-to were respectively 38.76, 52.93, 50.95, and 40.65 in 2000. By comparison, the LLIIs in 2009 were 38.96, 59.23, 69.24 and 52.15, respectively. Further analysis showed that a big gap exists between the environmental quality of Beijing and those of three global cities and the performance of social development for Beijing declined in the last decade. To accelerate the transformation of Beijing to a global city, much more attention should be paid to improve the environmental quality, especially the atmospheric quality and water quality.

Sleight takes to the bustling streets of the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century city to explore young people’s access to, and use of, the outdoor urban realm. Primary and secondary archival evidence from London, New York and Melbourne yields both hard data and well-informed speculations. Sleight argues that, though often marginalized in contemporary cities, the sheer variety and prevalence of young people’s walking practices shows the centrality of these individuals to nineteenth- and early twentieth-century city life. In an era of burgeoning mass transit and the take-up of bicycles, the main mode of movement was still on foot. As Sleight makes clear, young city walkers have long dwelt in a world of scattered horizons contingent upon age, gender, class and ethnicity.

Two of the main features of the city over the last 50 years include intense urbanization and large scale growth. These two phenomena have produced new social, political and economical dynamics that have radicalized our understanding of the city. Many disciplines, among which urban sociology, are facing a crisis of old paradigms to explain these innovations. Consequently, contemporary urban sociology has articulated two new paradigms that try to explain and analyze the new processes of global urbanization. In the view of new models of urban growth, under intense globalization process, these phenomena are completely renovating the perception of the city under the models of a growth machine and the space of flows. These two views attempt to explain and understand the dynamic growth and changes in contemporary cities. In this essay we will put expose a critical analysis of the city as a growth machine and space of flows of the most important authors that unfold a latest development of the city in contemporary conditions. The main authors whose work will be addressed here are Harvey Molotch and Manuel Castells. Molotch reveals a new perception of the city as a growth machine that is based on the terms of strong economic urban development, while Castells introduces the notion of "network city" and "space of flows" for a new social structure to explain the complexity of connection within and between the cities (global cities). Under the new conditions, the perception of the city is understood as the space of flows that create global networks and new forms of interaction.

This article deals with the relationship between the Church of Scotland, the private sector and the local state in the provision of funeral arrangements and burial sites in Edinburgh in the nineteenth century. The first section introduces the status of the Kirk as upholder of tradition and provider of charity in relation to the funeral day. Next, state intervention will be considered, initially in the form of the introduction of the 1832 Anatomy Act, which had a direct bearing upon the status of the poor in Edinburgh and the Kirk's attitudes towards them when they died. This development, it will be argued, intensified working class desire for respectability in death, and increased the financial resources devoted to the funeral of the industrial age. Meanwhile, the challenge of the private cemetery companies during the 1840s further embodied the invasion of the market into the ‘ultimate’ rite of passage. Their example is used to illuminate not only the Kirk's inability to accommodate changing demand, but also the extent to which private enterprise was relied upon to solve municipal problems throughout the nineteenth century in Edinburgh. Finally, the article will explain the eventual demise of the Kirk as a source of burial provision in the capital, at the hands of a state that could no longer count upon pre-industrial solutions for disposal.

In this paper I present childhood biographies of three people who grew up in or near a public housing development located on the border between the contrasting communities of Yorkville and East Harlem in New York City. Stories of their middle childhood (ages 11–13) poignantly capture the social and spatial evolution of play and recreation in New York City from the 1930s until present time. Based on in-depth childhood autobiographies and archival materials from the New York Times, I demonstrate changes in children's access to play and recreation space, how children negotiate their lived experiences in these spaces, and how these spaces reflect differing representations of childhood over time. While play and recreation are, of course, a broad range of activities that occur in multiple settings and under various forms of supervision, the focus of this paper is upon the role of the streets, public parks and playgrounds in children's everyday lives. Preliminary results suggest that children's access to public play spaces in New York City has declined over time. This decline can be attributed to public disinvestment in neighborhood parks and playgrounds, perceived (and real) violence in these spaces, and more recently, to the commercialization and privatization of playtime activities.

Large and significant cities have fascinated researchers since the early twentieth century. This is indicated by the wide range of terms used to describe cities, whereby since the 2000s “global cities” and “world cities” have gradually become key—yet at times also contested—concepts. This article provides a bibliographic introduction to this wide-ranging and sometimes seemingly incoherent literature. A first major reason for the sometimes-fuzzy character of “the global/world city literature” is that there have been earlier, related uses of these terms. Although it is difficult to identify a straightforward disjuncture between these earlier uses of the terms and what are commonly seen as key foundational texts in the present-day literature, we can observe a gradual trend toward conceptualizing urbanization processes at transnational rather than national scales. In earlier writings using the global/world cities terminology, the cosmopolitan character of cities was above all interpreted as an expression of their host states’ geopolitical and geo-economic power. Contemporary literature, however, considers city/state relations to be either fundamentally reworked or less consequential for understanding major cities. A second reason for the wide-ranging meaning of the “global city” and “world city” concepts is that, in addition to both terms sometimes having different meanings and connotations in their own right, they are also part of an increasingly diverse literature exploring transnationalization processes and/in contemporary cities, including research on “global city-regions” and more recently also “globalizing cities” and “cities in globalization.” Although the terminology and what it seeks to capture is therefore inevitably to some degree confounded, in the remainder of this article, a straightforward distinction will be made between “world cities” (the more specific literature detailed in this article) and “cities in globalization” (the increasingly broad and diversified literature in which the world city literature itself is embedded).