Jewish Women and Secondary Education in Interwar Bialystok, 1921–1939

In the period of 1919–1939, Poland paid considerable attention to the newly annexed Western Ukrainian lands, directing its efforts to the implementation of an active national policy and the integration of these territories into the Second Polish Republic. One of the central elements of this strategy was the celebrations dedicated to the anniversaries of the restoration of Polish statehood, which for the Polish authorities performed not only an integrational function, but also became a means to enhance political influence in the Western Ukrainian lands as well as to emphasize and assert Polish sovereignty in these territories. Celebrating the anniversaries of the restoration of statehood also played an important role in national self-awareness, as the agenda dedicated to these anniversaries contributed to the strengthening of Polish patriotism and tried to reduce the influence of local identities. The Polish authorities spent significant efforts to create a positive image of the Polish state among the local population. Through mass events, including anniversaries, propaganda campaigns, religious festivities, and educational initiatives, the Polish authorities tried to reinforce the idea of unity and common interests with the local population. The festivities also served as an important tool for strengthening the integration of the western Ukrainian lands into the structures of the Polish state. This was aimed to create an impression of united community and general integrity of the new territory with Poland, which, in turn, facilitated the control and management of the region. Therefore, the solemn anniversaries of the restoration of Polish statehood in the Western Ukrainian lands played a multifaceted role. They served as a means of political influence and an instrument of integration, as well as an element of national identity politics. The celebrations contributed to the creation of a positive image of the Polish state among the local population, while at the same time causing resistance and tension on the part of the Ukrainian community, which continued to fight for its national rights and identity. While the Jewish, Armenian, German and other national minorities were ignored in the rhetoric of the organizers of the celebrations, the Ukrainian national minority was portrayed as a force that tried to oppose the construction of then new Polish state. This situation, accordingly, contributed to the formation of an antagonistic national policy of Polish governments towards a significant number of citizens of the Second Polish Republic, which, in turn, contributed to the spread of narratives that actively strengthened the struggle against the authorities. The involvement of organizations related to the “defense of Lviv” in 1918 was particularly negatively perceived by the Ukrainian minority. Ukrainians considered these organizations as enemies of their own statehood, which greatly complicated their perception of the Second Polish Republic as their own state. The negative perception of Polish organizations involved in the celebrations by the Ukrainian minority pointed to serious national opposition that existed in interwar Poland. This caused significant difficulties in building a unified national narrative and complicated the process of forming a common state identity. The antagonistic policy of Polish governments towards national minorities not only exacerbated inter-ethnic conflicts, but also contributed to the formation of oppositional sentiments. Keywords: Poland, Western Ukraine, statehood, Second Polish Republic, anniversaries, national policy, political influence, sovereignty, governance, identity politics, national identity, patriotism, unity, propaganda, integration, Ukrainian inhabitants, interethnic misunderstandings, Jewish population.

Problem setting. Nowadays the content of secondary education in Ukraine does not take into account individual characteristics of the students and it is not focused on the formation of creative potential and system of knowledge by interests, the educational process is overburdened with secondary factual material and is overly regulated. It necessitates the search and implementation of new approaches to organization of educational process in high school. One of such approaches is career counselling for secondary school students that provides thourough and specialized general education, access to quality education in accordance with the individual skills and needs of the student youth.Recent research and publications analysis. The problem of career counselling for secondary school students in Ukraine has become the subject of research by Ukrainian scholars. In particular, theoretical and conceptual foundations of career counselling training were investigated by N. Bibik, M. Burda, S. Volyanskaya, O. Adamenko, V. Kizenko, A. Samodrin, B. Fedorishin, G. Vashchenko, M. Goncharov, N. Dmitrenko.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. The introduction of specialized secondary education is one of the priorities of public education policy. Therefore, it is advisable to investigate the legal bases for introducing career counselling for secondary education system in Ukraine within the science of public administration.The aim of the article is to analyze the legal support for the introduction of career counselling for secondary education system in Ukraine.Paper main body. According to Article 53 of the Constitution of Ukraine everyone has the right to education. However, the deterioration of indicators of competitiveness and the innovative attractiveness of secondary education system in Ukraine need a thorough reform within the framework of the Concept of Implementation of the State Policy for the Reform of General Secondary Education “New Ukrainian School” for the period up to 2029. The aim of the reform of the education system in Ukraine is to create the conditions for personal development and creative self-realization of every citizen of Ukraine, to create generations capable of learning throughout life, to create and develop the values of civil society.In accordance with the objectives of the first phase of implementation of the Concept (2017 – 2018), a new Law of Ukraine “On Education” was adopted, Article 10 of which defines three levels of secondary education: primary education lasting four years; basic secondary education lasting five years; specialized secondary education lasting three years. At the third stage of the Concept implementation (2023 – 2029), it is planned to introduce a specialized level of secondary education – a process of individual and differentiated learning, the basic ideas of which are the education of students in grades 10 – 12 by: interests; competencies; plans for self-realization.According to the Law of Ukraine “On Education”, obtaining a specialized secondary education involves two directions:– academic – specialized education based on the combination of the content of education which is defined by the standard s of secondary specialized education, and in-depth study of individual subjects taking into account the abilities and educational needs of education recipients focusing on continuing education at higher levels of education;– professional – labor market oriented specialized education based on a combination of educational content defined by the standard of secondary specialized education and a professionally oriented approach to learning taking into account the abilities and needs of students.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies.1. The crisis and the challenges of the problem have led to the reform of the content of secondary education in Ukraine on the basis of competent and personally oriented approaches to learning; orientation to the acquisition of skills necessary for successfu students self-realization in their professional activity.2. One of the directions of modernization and improvement of the secondary education system in Ukraine is to ensure the acquisition of appropriate qualitative skills and competences at school needed for work, innovation and active citizenship through the introduction of a specialized link education. The content of career counselling for secondary education involves the introduction of the process of individual and differentiated learning of students in grades 10 – 12 by interests, competencies and plans for self-realization.3. The legal basis for career counselling for secondary education system in Ukraine is the Constitution of Ukraine, the Laws of Ukraine “On Education”, “On Complete General Secondary Education”, the Concept of the implementation of state policy in the field of reforming general secondary education “New Ukrainian School” for the period up to 2029. For the effective reform of the general secondary education with the introduction of the career counselling component it is necessary to implement the provisions of the Law of Ukraine “On comprehensive general secondary education”, to develop and adopt the new Law of Ukraine “On Vocational Education”.The subject of further scientific research in this area will be the content and forms of organization of specialized education in secondary school.

The Polish version of the article was published in “Roczniki Humanistyczne,” vol. 57 (2009), issue 2.
 The Sodality of Our Lady is a Catholic religious association for young people founded in the Jesuit College in Rome in 1563 by Fr Jan Leunis. The most gifted and devout boys joined the Sodality in order to spread the cult of the Mother of God. Popes provided care for the vibrantly developing movement because of the great influence Sodalities of Our Lady had on the religious formation of young people. Jesuits established Marian congregations of students attending colleges in all Catholic countries, forming an international elite organization of lay Catholics. Sodalities thrived and they spread to all social estates in the 17th and the first half of the 18th century. Not only did school students belong to it, but also popes, kings, the gentry, clergy, townsfolk, craftsmen, military men and servants. The chief objective of the Sodality was to live by the motto “Per Mariam ad Jesum.” The development of the Sodality was halted by the dissolution of the Jesuit Order. In the middle of the 19th century the pronouncement of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Holy Virgin, made by Pope Pious IX, opened a new era of the cult and a new period in the history of the Sodality.
 In Poland, the first Marian congregation of school students was established in Braniewo in 1571. At the end of the 18th century, before the dissolution of the Jesuit Order, in Poland there were 66 colleges, seminaries and monastery schools, and there was always at least one congregation affiliated to each of the schools. At the end of the 19th century, school sodalities were revived in Galicia, i.e. in Tarnopol, Chyrów, Tarnów, and in a girls’ secondary school run by the Ursulines in Kraków. A dynamic development of Marian congregations of school students started after Poland regained independence in 1918. The centre of the sodalitarian movement for all the estates was Kraków. The movement gained solid foundations in the two powerful sodality unions of both secondary school boys and girls. Father Józef Winkowski established a sodality for boys, and Fr Józef Chrząszcz one for girls. Sodalities published their own magazines, organized conventions, pilgrimages to Jasna Góra (Częstochowa, Poland), and ran charity organizations. In the late 1930s, nearly seventeen thousand students of secondary schools throughout the country were members of school sodalities. At the dawn of the Second Polish Republic, the greatest number of school sodalities operated in Kraków. There were 11 boys’ sodalities in secondary state schools and one in a private school run by the Piarist Order, and 11 girls’ sodalities in state and private schools. The Sodality of Our Lady contributed to the religious revival in Poland. The development of this organization was halted by World War II. After the war, in the years 1945–1949, the operation of the Sodality of Our Lady was resumed in many centres. The liquidation of church organizations in 1949 stopped its work for good, and its members came to be persecuted by the Communist regime.

Since the virtual abolition of the double-track system, secondary school education worldwide has carried a double task: to continue to provide general education for qualified students after they finish elementary schooling and to train mid-level professional personnel and technically skilled workers. These will continue to be the tasks of secondary school education until the realization of universalization of higher education. Secondary school education is the intermediate link in the whole school system. The state of secondary school education influences the quality of higher education and affects the development of the national economy and the co-ordination of social life. Therefore, we should pay special attention to the reform of secondary school education in order to make it suitable to the rapid development of scientific technology and the national economy and to the changes in social life. The reform of secondary school education concerns many areas, but the key point is to set up a proper structure. How, then, can the structure of secondary school education be made effective? First, let us look at the present state of structural reform in secondary school education in various countries. In Bulgaria, vocational education takes precedence in the various schools at the secondary level. After finishing a compulsory eightyear education, 90 percent of the students go on studying in one of the following three types of secondary schools: 48.3 percent in secondary vocational-technical school (three years); 27.3 percent in general comprehensive technical school, that is, general high school (four years); 16.1 percent in secondary vocational school (four years). Thus the students in secondary technical schools and secondary vocational schools represent 64.4 percent of all the students in secondary schools. In Romania, measures were taken in 1977 to reform the structure of secondary school education. Vocational-technical education in the high school was strengthened and the high school program was divided into many vocational courses including industry, agriculture, law, administration, mathematics, teacher training, history, medicine, art, and language. Besides learning a basic knowledge of culture and science according to a study plan, students are now required to master some skills in a profession. Research has shown the variation in some developed countries in the proportion of students in vocational schools to those in general middle schools: in the United States of America, the ratio is 4:6; in Japan, 4:6; in the Federal Republic of Germany, 6:4; in Italy, 3:1; and in the USSR, 4:6 (Li, L., 1984).

Uspostavljanje modela filmske edukacije u srednjoj školi

Important differentials in mortality exist among ethnic and religious groups in the US but available statistics frequently preclude their examination. In the absence of mortality data for US Jews researchers have developed various alternatives, including using New York City's unique coding of death certificates according to religious affiliation of cemetery. Based on mortality rates for a sample of Medicare enrollees assumed to be representative of the Jewish population, in combination with New York City death record data, estimated death rates by sex and cause of death are developed for that city's elderly Jewish population. Comparisons made with rates for the white population of New York indicate low death rates for smoking-related diseases (lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases) among Jewish males. Other findings include above-average mortality from breast cancer among 65-74 year old Jewish women and from pancreatic cancer among Jewish women aged > or = 85. Below average mortality for both sexes is estimated for cerebrovascular disease and accidents, and for males from prostate cancer. The estimates produced are consistent with data from previous studies.

The aims of this study was to investigate attitudes toward physical education and class preferences of Turkish secondary and high school students related to gender and age. The participants were 302 female (Mage = 13.11 ± 0.79) and 332 male (Mage = 13.14 ± 0.69) students from secondary school education aged 12 to 14 and 290 female (Mage = 16.48 ± 0.86) and 316 male (Mage = 16.42 ± 0.90) student from high school aged 15 to 17. A total of 1240 students voluntarily participated in this study. The Attitudes Toward Physical Education Scale (ATPES) was applied. ANOVA was used to determine differences in attitude toward PE between students from secondary and high schools and between girls and boys. In order to test differences in PE class preferences of students with regard to school context and gender, chi square analysis was conducted. Men scores of ATPES for secondary school and high school girl and boy students were determined 3.95 point, 4.01 point, 3.40 point and 3.77 point, respectively. Generally of secondary school students (%66.6) preferred coed physical education class, while generally of high school students (%69) preferred single-sex physical education class. This research verifies that attitudes towards physical education and PE class preferences change according to gender and age. SUMMARY Purpose and significance: The aims of this study was to investigate attitudes toward physical education and class preferences in Turkish secondary and high school students related to gender and age. In spite of the growth in the studies on the effectiveness of PE, sport science literature that have investigated students' attitudes toward PE and on PE class preferences according to age and gender are limited. Methods: The study was conducted during the 2006-2007 fall semester. Participants consisted of 1240 students from seven secondary and six high general schools of Bursa/Turkey. In this study, coeducational secondary and high schools were selected. The participants were 302 girls (Mage = 13.11 ± 0.79) and 332 boys (Mage = 13.14 ± 0.69) aged 12 to 14 from secondary education schools and 290 girls (Mage = 16.48 ± 0.86) and 316 boys (Mage = 16.42 ± 0.90) aged 15 to 17 from high schools. Two data collection instruments were administered. In the first section of the first personnel information, participants provide demographic related information such as age, grade, and gender. In the second section participants were asked: Which PE class do you prefer? Coed PE or Single sex The second instrument is the Attitude Toward PE Scale for Turkish students. Results: Findings of this study indicated a significant gender difference in high school students attitudes toward PE (F = 29.361; p 0.05 . The attitude scores of secondary school boys and girls respectively was (M = 4.01) and (M = 3.95). In addition, the attitude scores of secondary school boys (M = 4.01) were significantly higher (F = 26.245; p<0.05) than those of high school boys (M = 3.77), and the attitude scores of secondary school girls (M = 3.95) were significantly higher (F = 33.752; p<0.05) than those of high school girls (M = 3.40). In order to test differences in PE class preferences of students with regard to school context and gender, chi square analysis was conducted. Significant differences in PE class preferences were found between students from secondary and high schools (E 2 = 62.634; p <0.05). Most of the students from secondary schools (66.6%) preferred single-sex PE, whereas nearly most of the students from high schools (69%) preferred coed PE. Discussion and Conclusions: This research verifies that attitudes towards physical education and PE class preferences change according to gender and age. Secondary school students show more positive attitudes towards physical education than high school students. Boys show more positive attitudes than girls. In addition secondary school students preferred single-sex PE, whereas high school students preferred coed PE. In order to improve the attitudes of girls towards physical education, Ministry of National Education have to make some changes in physical education course curriculum. This change has to be from competitive physical education course model to a model that encompasses life-time sport, health, physical fitness, and well-being. Physical education course curriculums should be re-arranged to enable students to obtain necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes for a healthy and happy daily life. Moreover, all students must have the confidence and skills to continue physical activities in their future lives.

Written by the world’s leading Jewish demographer, Professor Sergio DellaPergola, and Dr Daniel Staetsky, Director of JPR’s European Jewish Demography Unit, this report shines a light on the demography of Jewish in Austria today, and presents in-depth analysis of fertility rates, age distribution data, patterns of Jewish identity, migration and intermarriage rates to predict Austrian Jewry’s future. It demonstrates, through careful and methodical analysis, that the population is projected to grow. Whilst the Austrian Jewish population is small, its projected growth constitutes an important finding in European Jewish demography. The Jewish population of Europe has declined dramatically over the past century and a half, particularly as a result of mass migration and the Holocaust. Yet today, in several European countries, demographers are beginning to see signs of growth, driven particularly by high birth rates in the strictly Orthodox population. This study provides an important example of this phenomenon. The report is a publication of JPR’s European Jewish Demography Unit, an initiative established in 2019 to produce new data to support Jewish community planning across Europe. Funded by the Rothschild Foundation Hanadiv Europe, the Unit is working to produce country-specific reports annually, and this study about Austria is the first of these. The report draws on three major sources of data: the 2001 Austrian Census, comprehensive records of the Austrian Jewish community and a survey carried out by a JPR/Ipsos consortium in 2018 for the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA). Key findings include: Today the core Jewish population of Austria is estimated to be just above 10,000. The ‘core Jewish population’ consists of people who would explicitly identify themselves as Jews. This is the highest number of Jews observed in Austria since the 1960. According to the Israeli Law of Return – which uses a broader definition to determine who is entitled to migrate to Israel and immediately apply for Israeli citizenship – the eligible Jewish population in Austria is currently about 20,000. The core Jewish population constitutes 0.1% of the total population of Austria. 64% of all Austrians are Roman Catholics, 17% are unaffiliated in religious terms, and 8% are Muslims. The Jewish population of Austria is growing and may reach 11,000-12,000 by the mid-2030s. About 86% of all Austrian Jews reside in Vienna. Only 19% of all Austrians live in Vienna The average number of children that a Jewish woman in Austria is expected to have in her lifetime is 2.5; strictly Orthodox Jewish women have 6–7 children per woman, on average, while non-strictly Orthodox Jewish women typically have about 2. The average among Austrian women in general is 1.5. Migration has been a powerful factor of growth in the Austrian Jewish population. Jews born in Israel constitute about 20% of Jews in Austria today. About 78% of Jewish households in Austria are affiliated with the Jewish community through membership of its representative organisation. Compared to other communities around the world, this is a very high level of affiliation. About 30% of Jews in Austria identify as ‘Orthodox’ or ‘Traditional’ and 19% as ‘strictly Orthodox.’ 15% identify as ‘Reform/Progressive’ and 19% as ‘just Jewish.’ Austrian Jewry has one of the highest proportions of strictly Orthodox Jews of all European Jewish communities. Due to their high fertility, the strictly Orthodox represent the main engine of population growth for the Jewish community as a whole. For the same reason, their share in the Jewish population is expected to increase significantly in the medium term. About two thirds (70%) of partnered Austrian Jews have a Jewish partner. About 70% of all Jewish children of compulsory school age in Austria attend Jewish schools. While 100% of strictly Orthodox Jews attend Jewish schools, among the non-strictly Orthodox uptake is still significant – about 52%.

The 13th Five-year Plan for Education Informatization in China clearly points out that new educational models such as STEM education and maker education should be explored. STEM, as an organizational course to cultivate students' innovation ability and computational thinking in the 21st century, is in a stage of vigorous development in China. The uneven development of primary and secondary education in China is caused by the differences in economic level, geographical location and population distribution in different regions. From the perspective of STEM education, this paper analyzes the difficulties faced by Primary and Secondary Education Reform in underdeveloped areas in China and it proposes strategies of promoting intelligence in Primary and Secondary Schools based on STEM education model -- Science and Technology Games in Primary and Secondary Schools, whose content, goals, teaching process and competition rules are carefully planned and designed. The first Junior Science and Technology Games was successfully held in Quannan County, Jiangxi Province. The empirical studies show that holding Science and Technology Games for Primary and Secondary Schools in underdeveloped areas is a new attempt to explore the strategy of promoting intelligence in Primary and Secondary Schools, which provides a strong practical basis for the development of primary and secondary education in underdeveloped areas and plays a very positive role in vigorously promoting the development of primary and secondary education in underdeveloped areas, stimulating and improving the innovation and creation ability of primary and secondary students, and cultivating their computational thinking.

Bugünkü Elazığ’ın eski adı olan Mamuratülaziz Osmanlı Devleti’nin önemli vilayetlerinden biridir. Başlangıçta Harput merkezli olan yerleşim 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren bugünkü Elazığ şehrinin bulunduğu Agavat mezraası denilen alana doğru kaymıştır. Buraya vali olarak atanan Hacı Ahmet İzzet Paşa zamanında, 1867 yılında mezraanın adı dönemin padişahı Abdülaziz’e ithafen Mamuratülaziz’e çevrilmiştir. Halkın kısaca Elaziz demeye başladığı isim zamanla Elazık ve Elazığ’a dönüşmüştür. 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Mamuratülaziz Vilayeti’ne bağlı üç sancak bulunmaktadır. Bu sancaklar Mamuratülaziz, Malatya ve Dersim’dir. Bu araştırmada 19. yüzyılın sonu ve 20. asrın başına tekabül eden dönemde vilayetin genelindeki eğitim durumu tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Araştırmada ana kaynak olarak Maarif Salnameleri kullanılmıştır. Bunun yanında 1894-1895’te basılan, Maarif-i Umumiye idaresinde bulunan bütün ibtidai, rüşdiye, idadi, âli, hususî mektepler, yabancı okullar ve kütüphanelerin istatistiğini barından kaynaktan istifade edilmiştir. Aynı zamanda konuyla ilgili araştırma ve inceleme eserlerden de yararlanılmıştır. Sultan II. Abdülhamid dönemi (1876-1909) eğitim sistemi ve kurumlarında önemli gelişmelerin yaşanıp modern okulların tüm Osmanlı coğrafyasına yayıldığı bir dönemdir. İlköğretimden yükseköğretime kadar yenilikler yapılmış, ülkede ciddi bir eğitim birikimi meydana gelmiştir. İlköğretimde sıbyan mekteplerinin yerini yeni usulle eğitim veren ibtidailer alırken ortaöğretimde rüşdiyelerin sayısı artırılmıştır. Kız rüşdiyeleri ve askerî rüşdiyeler de buna dahildir. Yine ortaöğretim düzeyindeki idadiler ülkenin her bölgesinde açılmıştır. Öğretmen ihtiyacını gidermek için taşrada açılan öğretmen okullarının yanı sıra meslekî eğitime verilen öneme binaen vilayetlerin bazılarında ziraat okulları kurulmuştur. Yükseköğretimde ise yeni yüksekokullar açılmış, Mülkiye Mektebi geliştirilmiş ve Darülfünun tekrar kurulmuştur. Dönemin ibtidai, rüşdiye ve idadi derecesinde yaşanan gelişmeler Mamuratülaziz Vilayeti’nde de kendini göstermiştir. II. Abdülhamid döneminde eğitimde yaşanan bu kurumsallaşmayla birlikte eğitimin durumunu gözler önüne seren çeşitli yayınların hazırlanması da gerçekleşmiştir. Okul tarihçelerinin hazırlanarak okulların genel durumu ve mezunları hakkındaki kitapların basılması ile 1894-1895’te ilk eğitim istatistiğinin yayınlanması bunlar arasında yer almaktadır. Eğitimle ilgili hazırlanan çalışmaların başında ise Maarif Salnameleri gelmektedir. Muhtevası bakımından oldukça zengin olan bu eserlerden II. Abdülhamid dönemi eğitim sistemiyle ilgili önemli bilgiler elde edilmektedir. Başta İstanbul ve bütün Osmanlı vilayetlerindeki ilk, orta, lise ve yükseköğretimi içeren bütün okulların hocaları, talebeleri, yönetimi, dersleri, imtihanları, kuruluş tarihleri gibi bilgiler bunlar arasındadır. Ayrıca dönemin sosyal, kültürel ve eğitim hayatına büyük katkısı olan kütüphane, gazete ve matbaalar hakkında da detaylı malumat bulunmaktadır. Maarif Salnameleri Osmanlı Devleti’nin kültür tarihini incelemek için de son derece önemli kaynaklardır. Bu nedenlerle araştırmada Maarif Salnamelerindeki bilgilerden hareketle, Mamuratülaziz Vilayeti’nde bulunan geleneksel eğitim kurumu olan medreselerle modern eğitim kurumları ibtidai, rüşdiye, idadiler ile gayrimüslim okulları ve yabancı okullar incelenmiştir. Vilayette yer alan kütüphaneler, Vilayet Matbaası ve Mamuratülaziz Gazetesi hakkında da malumat verilmiştir. Araştırmanın Osmanlı dönemi eğitim ve kültür çalışmalarına katkısının olacağı düşünülmektedir.

Between the Pillars of Welfare, Cultural Work, Politicization, and Feminism: The Zionist “Circle of Jewish Women” in Lviv, 1908–1939 The Circle of Jewish Women (“Koło Kobiet Żydowskich”), founded in Lemberg/Lviv in 1908 and active until 1939, played a vital role in the organization of Zionist women in the city and other places in Eastern Galicia. It was founded, among others, by Róża Pomeranc Melcer, one of the pioneers of Zionist women’s associations in Galicia and the first and only Jewish woman parliamentarian in the Second Polish Republic. Nevertheless, the history of the Circle, as well as the work of its many active members—many of whom perished in the Holocaust—has been almost forgotten and is rarely explored. The author of the article argues that this organization not only represents social welfare, but it also embodies elements of social support, cultural work, politicization, and feminism. Therefore, the author emphasizes the role the Circle played in the process of organizing Zionist women in Lviv and Galicia before World War I and especially during the interwar period in the Second Polish Republic, and how it contributed to women’s emancipation. Thus, the history of one of the most important Zionist women’s organizations is reconstructed and its versatile work facets explored in more detail. * Niniejszy artyku łstanowi poprawionąi skróconą wersję dwóch rozdziałów na temat organizacji syjonistycznej, które zostaną opublikowane w antologii Women Zionists Worldwide, 1897–1945 Miry Yungman (w przygotowaniu). Częściowo powstał także na podstawie prezentacji przedstawionej na konferencji Kobieta żydowska – nowe badania i perspektywy badawcze (Kraków, 26–28 kwietnia 2021).

National counts of Jewish populations have been fraught with unpleas ant consequences for their sponsors since biblical times (see II Samuel 24:1-18). In those times they were unpopular because of the belief that unfair advantages and dangerous unnatural powers were conferred on the initiators of such projects. In the contemporary academic world, social scientists are taught that surveys have to be approached with cau tion because they famously are prone to error because of bad or fluctuat ing design, discrepancies in samples, and poor execution (Kosmin, 1979). Unfortunately, the National Jewish Population Surveys of 1970 01 and 2000-01 brought little naches (satisfaction) to their sponsors in part because they took place in an intellectual vacuum and ignored the historical and international comparative framework that should under pin all major social scientific studies of the Jews. Their sponsors also failed to recognize that the essence of science, especially as applied to national baseline data collection, is replicable data with standardized and detailed classification rules applied consistently. Rabbinical and biblical literature, as well as gentile authorities, tra ditionally viewed the Jews both as a nation and as a religious commu nity. After Emancipation during the 19th century, this fabric of unity began to unravel. In Western Europe, some Jews chose to define them selves solely as a religious group, eliminating the national aspect. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, and also to some extent in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Jewishness was expressed by modernizers, such as the Bundists and Zionists, as a secular national category compa rable to other nationality groups dwelling in these multi-ethnic empires. Internationally, official Jewish population and social statistics reflect these historical developments. For instance, for more than a century the Jews of Switzerland and Ireland have been recorded as a religious or confessional group in their respective national decennial censuses. By contrast, the Jews of the USSR/CIS were recorded as a nationality on the basis of descent in censuses that provide a similar rich time series. North American Jews are heirs to three traditions: the pre-modern religion-nation; the Western modernizers who defined themselves as a group with a distinct religion and who maintained the nationality of their host country; and the East European modernizers who defined themselves as a secular nationality on the basis of Yiddish or Hebrew culture. Though largely of Eastern European stock, American Jews live in a society similar to Western Europe, a society of unitary nationality but with multiple religious groups. Contemporary Jewish identification

The Jewish population, who arrived in Poland in the 11th century, constituted one tenth of the population in the Second Polish Republic. They had the constitutionally guaranteed right to freely profess the Mosaic religion, including ritual baths. Water, understood as a symbol of spiritual purification, is present in all the main religions of the world. However, it occupies a special place in Judaism. The mikvah, a ritual bath, is required in many cases of spiritual and physical uncleanness. In Poland, reborn after the partitions, Jewish mikvahs constituted more than half of all bathing establishments – public baths. Pursuant to the regulations governing the functioning of Jewish communities, introduced in 1919, their duty was to maintain ritual baths. Subsequent regulations defined this activity only in terms of the competence of the religious community. Commercial mikvahs were taxed like ordinary businesses. In the interwar period, sanitary regulations concerning mikvahs were included in two ordinances – in 1921 and in 1936. The latter regulation was in force until 2002, i.e. in three different forms of Polish statehood. Pursuant to the 1997 Act on the State’s Relationship to Jewish Religious Communities in the Republic of Poland, Jewish communities still care for ritual baths.

It is estimated that 23% of the girls in secondary schools in Kenya drop out of school each year as a result of teenage pregnancy. Findings of the Kenya Aids Indicator Survey of 2007 indicate that the HIV and STI prevalence rate is 7 for Rift Valley province, that is, 7 out of every 1000 people have HIV and STI. The drop-out rate for girls in Uasin Gishu district is 2.1% while that of boys’ stands at 2.4%, according to Uasin Gishu development plan 2002 -2007. This is attributed to factors such as HIV, STIs and teenage pregnancies among others. In response to the rising number of HIV, STIs and teenage pregnancies and the resultant dropout rates in schools, the Ministry of Education intended to introduce sex education in secondary schools in Kenya to create awareness on the consequences of sex abuse in order to reduce school dropout rate on teenage pregnancies and STIs related infections. Debates on introduction of Sex Education in schools rages on and a lot of studies have been done on the pros and cons of this. But the opinion of children has not been sought. However, the intentions of the ministry were not realized because religious groups opposed it. In African indigenous culture, children are not consulted in decision making, but according to the United Nations Convention of 1989, children have a right to access information, participate and take responsibility in the society. Hence, need to seek their views. Therefore, this study sought to find out the perception of secondary school students on the need for sex education in secondary schools in Eldoret municipality, Kenya. Perceptions are vital since they shape students behaviour and attitudes towards their sexuality as well as morality. The research design for this study was a cross sectional descriptive survey aimed at collecting qualitative and quantitative primary data from students on their perceptions on the need for sex education. This was done through structured questionnaires and focus group discussions. A sample of 325 students was obtained through stratified and simple random sampling. The findings of the study showed that 53% of the students perceived the need to introduce of Sex Education in schools and so the idea is perhaps worth revisiting. The researcher therefore concludes that many students’ perceptions’ towards introduction of sex education in secondary schools is positive. Article visualizations:

Low breast cancer screening rates are often found among ethnic minority groups and those born outside the host country. This is of particular concern for high-risk groups, who should benefit from ongoing trials aimed at optimizing screening strategies for breast, as well as ovarian cancer. Both of these issues are germane for Jewish women in Europe. We systematically review the literature concerning breast cancer early detection practices (BCEDP) among Jewish women, and examine European surveillance studies of high-risk for breast and/or ovarian cancer that had imaging in the surveillance protocol, in order to assess the likelihood of adequately including women from minority ethnic groups. No studies were found about BCEDP among Jewish women in Europe. Twenty-one research groups from Israel or the US addressed BCEDP among Jewish women. Some Jewish women in the US and Israel, including recent immigrants, are under-screened. Twenty-four research groups reported imaging surveillance of women at increased risk for breast and/or ovarian cancer in Europe. There was a clear benefit to magnetic resonance imaging and/or more intensive screening for women with increased breast cancer risk. Some of these surveillance studies considered ethnic minority groups at high risk, including Jewish women, but none provided adequate outreach to ensure that these groups were included in their programs. The specific screening needs of Jewish and other high-risk ethnic minority groups in Europe have not been met regarding breast and ovarian cancer. A European-wide, population-based approach is suggested, with cultural sensitivity being vital for these efforts.