It Takes a Network and More: Athlete Activism and the Co-Creation of Athlete-Brand Meaning

This article is the result of research conducted as part of the diploma thesis entitled "Organization of Mega Events based on the FIFA World Cup in Qatar", defended at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń in 2023. The article focuses on the issue of organizing mega events, using as a case study FIFA World Cup in Qatar. The analysis covers various aspects of managing such large sports events and identifies the benefits and threats arising from the role of the organizer of a championship tournament. Additionally, as a result original research using a survey questionnaire, participants' opinions were collected regarding the assessment of the organization of the entire event from the viewer's perspective. The main aim of the article is to present various strategies for managing championship events and to identify key aspects influencing the effective management of mega events. The first chapter is an introduction to the basic issues related to the organization of events, including the types, features and goals of these events, as well as the characteristics of mega-events. The following chapters focus on the analysis of organizational aspects and controversies related to the FIFA World Cup and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the role of the organizer of a championship tournament, including the management of communication and technical infrastructure and fan groups. In the last chapter, research was conducted using a survey questionnaire to understand fans' impressions of FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022. The research results were described and summarized, shedding light on the overall impressions and opinions of event participants.

Mega sporting events have been hailed for resulting in economic growth, evident in high investments, growth of businesses, and development of infrastructure because of the increased number of investors, tourists, and fans visiting host countries during such events. Even though host countries may experience non-economic benefits, such as a good legacy from the mega sporting events, there are also significant economic benefits realised by host countries. The study intended to assess the anticipated economic impacts of the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar as a developing country. The study engaged in descriptive research design. Primary data was collected from research participants comprising Hotel Managers, Sports managers, Economic consultants, Project managers in the construction industry, and bank managers. Further, the study selected a sample of 50 respondents in data analysis. The researcher adopted inferential statistics to analyse data from the respondents, who were all from Qatar. The results of the study indicated that 2022 FIFA World Cup is likely to raise the employment level, especially for construction workers involved in the construction of stadia, growth of income level expansion of business, especially in hospitality industries are likely to attract many foreign visitors. Also, findings suggest that Qatar will experience an increase in the price of commodities and development of infrastructure. The findings depicted that the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar will result in increased operating costs in the short-term and the long-term. Besides, the study found out that the event will lead to a high level of capital cost and a state of resource deficiency. The study concluded that the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar as a developing country would have significant economic effects on the country. The researcher recommended that Qatar should focus on investing in projects that will help boost income levels for employees, boost business growth, attract more foreigners as tourist and fans, reduce the prices of goods and services as well as accommodation and activities that will reduce the long-term.

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to assess the impacts of mega sporting events on migrant workers, by exploring the skills needs and the challenges faced by migrant workers, and the measures put in place to safeguard migrant workers in relation to the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. Methodology: The research was a case study based on the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, through both descriptive and exploratory research designs. Structured questionnaires were administered to the respondents, with a sample size of 61 respondents who were randomly sampled used for data analysis for the study. Random sampling technique was used to ensure respondents from each sample comprising skilled manual workers, service workers, social workers, and managerial/professional workers were given an equal opportunity of being chosen without biased selection and representation of the target population. The quantitative data obtained was analysed using the SPSS version 25 for data analysis through the use of descriptive statistics such as percentages, which were presented using tables and charts. Further, the study variables were analysed using a regression equation. Findings: The findings of the study indicated that there has been an influx of migrant workers since 2010 as a result of Qatar being granted the hosting rights for the FIFA 2022 World Cup. Further, the findings revealed that these migrant workers have encountered challenges while working in Qatar in preparation for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Moreover, the study found out that migrant workers' welfare had improved as a result of the measures employed by the Qatar government to safeguard their welfare. Unique contribution to theory, policy and practice: The researcher concluded that the skills need for migrant workers, challenges faced by migrant workers and the measures employed by the Qatar government have an impact on the performance of the migrant workers as well as their welfare. Therefore, the researcher recommends a continual increase of efforts in the study objectives to set a high standard to be adopted by other countries intending to hold mega sporting events.

Purpose: This research aimed to identify cybersecurity threats expected at the upcoming FIFA World Cup in Qatar in 2022 and assess how they can be prevented.
 Methodology: This was done by adopting a quantitative research design and survey strategy with 167 respondents from Qatar. The respondents were purposively sampled from the event industry, and a Likert scale was used to quantify the responses for further statistical analysis. The quantitative data collected was analysed using the SPSS version 25 for data analysis. A hypothesis was tested as to whether the perceived expected cybersecurity threats are significantly associated with the perceived quality of measures to tackle these threats. The testing was done using multiple methods, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and cross-sectional linear regression analysis. Further analysis was done using One-way ANOVA and correlation analysis, as well as, independent samples t-test. Descriptive statistics, such as percentages and frequencies were used, with tables and charts used in presenting the findings.
 Findings: The results revealed high loadings of potential cyberattacks on sponsors, fans, online ticket sales, government and the FIFA website based on the PCA. The regression analysis revealed a statistically significant association between the perception of the cybersecurity risks and perceived quality of measures undertaken to address the cyber threats. The research was limited, however, by not covering technical issues of cybersecurity, including the development of improvements to current security systems, which presents an area for future research with the implementation of machine learning technologies, big data and AI training.
 Contribution: The study provided recommendations for policymakers to invest in technologies for the protection of sensitive data, including online databases and hiring competent specialists in the field of cybersecurity. To address the risks for fans, policymakers are recommended to start a campaign aimed at increasing the awareness of cyberattacks on personal and financial information at large events.

The purpose of this study is to examine whether mega-sport events influence visitors' destination images and to explore which factors influence their perceptions of and intentions to attend a mega-sport event in certain destinations. We examine visitors' perceptions of the 2016 UEFA European Football Championship in France, the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, and the upcoming 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar through a structured questionnaire published on the Facebook group Camp Sweden, a community of Swedish football supporters. We find differences among supporters’ destination image after they attended the mega-sport football events. The study also shows that positive destination images after visits were based on whether the destinations were able to satisfy important factors for supporters when visiting the destination. Qatar will be challenged to improve its destination image, as supporters do not connect factors important for visiting destinations with their current perceptions of Qatar. • Destination images can be positively enhanced through mega-sport events. • To enhance the destination image, it is important to obtain knowledge of visitors' motivation for traveling. • Event organizers and destination marketers need to satisfy visitors' expectations to enhance the destination image. • Event organizers' and destination marketers' need to cooperate to be able to satisfy visitors.

This research presents a novel framework that employs the resilience index and metrics, building on previous studies, to conduct a sequential evaluation of flooded road network performance at each timestep throughout the recovery stage. Subsequently, the mathematical integration of the performance-time diagram produces the Recovery Resilience Index (RRI) used to evaluate any recovery strategy/sequence. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis ensures the consistency of the results. As a case study, this research evaluated three post-flood interventions: Flood-susceptibility-based; Centrality-based; and Critical-links-first recovery strategies, within the context of the FIFA World Cup in Qatar, 2018. The results showed that the best strategy to be dealing with the critical-links-first and flood-susceptibility strategy to be the worst. The suggested framework will expand the options for recovery planning and resource allocation. Also, it will provide the policymakers with a recommendation to improve the recovery process during FIFA World Cup in Qatar, 2018 and any future mega event.

Athlete activism is increasingly visible and polarising. However, little is known in sport management research about the strategies, which opponents use to neutralise athlete activists. Discursive delegitimisation refers to the public discourse, which seeks to undermine activist legitimacy and challenge the meaning of activist actions. Prior to 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, 16 members of the Australian football team released a video via social media criticising Qatar’s human rights record with migrant workers and the LGBTQIA+ community. A content analysis was conducted of 5,844 social media comments on this video to examine the delegitimisation strategies employed by critics of this athlete activism. Findings illustrate nine forms of online discursive delegitimisation strategies. Those consistent with previous research were: 1) Stigmatising the athletes; 2) Authorisation; 3) Emphasising negative consequences; 4) Attributing new meaning to the activism; 5) Moral Evaluation; 6) Rationalisation; and 7) Mythopoesis. Two new strategies were identified: 8) Implying the athletes are disingenuous; and 9) arguing the activism is a distraction. This research demonstrates that online communities use social media to not only discuss and react to athlete activism, but to actively counteract and neutralise it. This study contributes to athlete activism research by conceptualising an integrative framework of discursive delegitimisation strategies in elite sport. As public perceptions closely align with sports marketing and branding efforts, this research has managerial implications to help athletes to avoid and overcome negative public perceptions and encourage their activism. Athletes and managers may be able to adjust their activist efforts to reduce delegitimisation.

This study examined residents’ attitudes towards the staging of the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar and assess their interest and level of support or opposition to this mega sport event. Guided by the Social Exchange Theory (SET) and the Social Representation Theory (SRT), the study used a survey conducted in 2019, involving 2031 residents: 1017 Qataris and 1014 non-Qataris. T-test and ANOVA analyses were employed. Examination of the factors shaping residents’ attitudes towards and interest in Qatar’s hosting of the 2022 FIFA World Cup revealed strong and positive associations between respondents’ demographic characteristics and their interest. Significant relationships were identified between respondents’ gender, nationality and educational level and interest in the 2022 World Cup. Findings suggest directions for sports policy makers and sport event managers to improve strategic planning for hosting major sporting events. Future research can draw on this study’s findings for adaption to other contexts.

This study analyzes the feasibility of satisfying the demand of three Football Stadiums for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, using the wind’s kinetic energy. For all three selected locations (Lusail, Al Rayyan, and Al Wakrah), the wind potentiality is calculated through an environmental parameters study, from which the wind power density is obtained. Furthermore, a commercial wind turbine with proper characteristics is selected, and the same case study for each location is presented, to quantify the capacity that wind energy offers for satisfying the maximum energy demand of each associated stadium. In addition, the environmental benefits and the time required by each wind farm to satisfy the energy demand are computed. The results reveal that the conditions enable the use of wind energy for this purpose, based on a 5.06 m/s, 4.63 m/s, and 5.18 m/s velocity mean for Lusail, Al Rayyan, and Al Wakrah, respectively; from which values of 187.49 W/m 2 , 150.96 W/m 2 , and 187.29 W/m 2 of wind power density are obtained. Also, the proposed wind farms could produce 69,952.56 MWh/year, 59,550.19 MWh/year, and 75,333.70 MWh/year, respectively. Moreover, the wind farms should produce energy for a period of 5.64 h, 4.41 h, and 5.23 h, to satisfy the maximum demand by a football match in its associated location. Additionally, to avoid the implementation of a storage system, the electricity obtained from the wind is connected to the power grid, decreasing the quota of fossil fuel power plants. In consequence, Qatar will eliminate the emissions of approximately 23.376 tons of CO 2 in total per trio of matches held in these stadiums. Finally, a post 2022 FIFA World Cup scenario is analyzed, obtaining a positive outcome from both environmental and economic perspectives, in which an average of 14,675 tons of CO 2 and 6.03 Million US$ can be saved annually.

This study aimed to assess the capacity for repeated maximal effort (RME) of soccer players in the thermo-natural conditions (NC) and in simulated conditions for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar (QSC). Twenty-four semi-professional soccer players participated in the study. The exercise test consisted of ten 6-second maximal efforts on a cycloergometer. A 90-second passive rest interval was used. The test was performed in a Weiss Technik WK-26 climate test chamber in two different conditions: 1) thermo-neutral conditions (NC—20.5°C; 58.7% humidity); and 2) simulated conditions for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar (QSC—28.5 ± 1.92°C; 58.7 ± 8.64% humidity). Power-related, physiological, psychomotor, blood, and electrolyte variables were recorded. Results showed that (1) players achieved higher peak power (max 1607,46 ± 192,70 [W] - 3rd rep), needed less time to peak power (min 0,95 ± 0,27 [s] - 3rd rep), and had a higher fatigue slope (max 218,67 ± 59,64 [W/sek] - 7th rep) in QSC than in NC (in each repetition of study protocol); (2) between the 1st repetition and subsequent repetitions a number of significants in among physiological, blood-related, and electrolyte variables were noted, but their direction was similar in both simulated conditions (e.g. V’O2/kg 37,59 ± 3,96 vs 37,95 ± 3,17 [ml/min/kg] - 3rd rep, LAC 13,16 ± 2,61 vs 14,18 ± 3,13 [mg/dl] - 10th rep or K 4,54 ± 0,29 vs 4,79 ± 0,36 [mmol/l] - 2nd rep when compare QCS and NC respectively); (3) an 8°C of temperature difference between the climatic conditions did not significantly affect the soccer players’ physical and physiological responses in RME. The study results can be used in the design of training programs aimed to increase players’ physiological adaptations by simulating soccer-specific conditions of play in terms of anaerobic capacity, in particular, repetitive maximal efforts. These findings will be useful during the upcoming 2022 World Cup in Qatar and in locations where high ambient temperatures are customary.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the climatic conditions predicted for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar and the capacity for repeated maximum effort (RSA), of soccer players. Twenty-four semi-professional soccer players participated in the study. The exercise test consisted of ten 6-second maximal efforts on a cycloergometer. A 90-second passive rest interval was used. Mechanical parameters were recorded in each repetition, and biochemical parameters at rest and even repetitions. The test was performed in a Weiss Technik WK-26 climate chamber under two different conditions: (1) thermoneutral (TNC - 20.5 °C; 58.7% humidity); (2) predicted for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar (QSC - 28.5 ± 1.92 °C; 58.7 ± 8.64% humidity). Significantly higher mean maximum power values were recorded in the second repetition under QSC conditions (1731,8 ± 214,4 W) (p = 0.025). A significantly longer time to reach maximum power was also recorded under TNC conditions compared to QSC conditions in repetition 2 (1,32 ± 0,33 s), (1,05 ± 0,29 s) (p = 0.016) and 6 (1,41 ± 0,48 s), (1,17 ± 0,25) (p = 0.036). There was a significantly higher rate of power loss, between repetition 2 (p = 0.023) and 4 (p = 0.043) under QSC conditions, compared to TNC. Considering the biochemical parameters, a significantly higher pO2 concentration was registered under QSC conditions in the 10th repetition (p = 0.006). The ambient temperature during exercise should be taken into account to determine the anaerobic exercise capacity of the athletes. At higher temperatures, there is a greater capacity for maximal effort, in terms of maximal power achieved, but with a greater decrease in performance.

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to assess the impacts of Mega Sporting Events on human rights, focusing on the FIFA 2022 World Cup in Qatar.
 Methodology: The study adopted a case study research design. The study administered structured questionnaires to a target population of 520 respondents out of which 400 respondents returned filled questionnaires. Simple random sampling was used to select a sample size of 400 respondents working in different activities related to the FIFA 2022 Association World Cup in Qatar. The quantitative data obtained was analysed using the SPSS version 25 for data analysis through the use of descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages with t-tests used to test the significance of the frequencies. Multiple linear regression was used to depict the relationship between the dependent and predictor variables.
 Findings: The findings of the study demonstrated that there exist human rights guiding principles, most of which have been adopted from international declarations, conventions and treaties. Also, the study found out that the different phases of the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar have significant effects on adverse human rights and also significantly present opportunities for advancing human rights. Besides, the study found that challenges such as the Kafala Scheme, increase in unregulated recruitment agents, religion and Qatar’s tradition continue to inhibit efforts that have been put in place by different actors towards enhancing human rights.
 Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy : The study recommend policy measures focusing on Mega Sporting Events’ towards influencing sustainability and the effect of Mega Sporting Events human rights for both local residents and migrant workers.

Kneeling to communicate athlete’s support to the antiracism movement has sporadically been done at soccer competitions in the Western world in the late 2010s and early 2020s. The movement’s lack of expansion is surprising given the contemporary isomorphic tendencies in governance in fields like sports, higher education, and business. The death of the ‘take a knee’ movement was confirmed in recent years at major sporting events: the 2021 Tokyo Olympics soccer tournament, the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023 in Australia and New Zealand, and the 2024 Paris Olympics soccer competition. This article argues that kneeling’s failure in enthusing potential communicators (sportspersons) and recipients (sports crowds) largely reflects the uninspired choice of symbolic communication for this grassroots movement, at least outside the United States.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the climatic conditions predicted for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar and the capacity for repeated maximum effort (RSA), of soccer players. Twenty-four semi-professional soccer players participated in the study. The exercise test consisted of ten 6-second maximal efforts on a cycloergometer. A 90-second passive rest interval was used. Mechanical parameters were recorded in each repetition, and biochemical parameters at rest and even repetitions. The test was performed in a Weiss Technik WK-26 climate chamber under two different conditions: (1) thermoneutral (TNC - 20.5 °C; 58.7% humidity); (2) predicted for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar (QSC - 28.5 ± 1.92 °C; 58.7 ± 8.64% humidity). Significantly higher mean maximum power values were recorded in the second repetition under QSC conditions (1731,8 ± 214,4 W) (p = 0.025). A significantly longer time to reach maximum power was also recorded under TNC conditions compared to QSC conditions in repetition 2 (1,32 ± 0,33 s), (1,05 ± 0,29 s) (p = 0.016) and 6 (1,41 ± 0,48 s), (1,17 ± 0,25) (p = 0.036). There was a significantly higher rate of power loss, between repetition 2 (p = 0.023) and 4 (p = 0.043) under QSC conditions, compared to TNC. Considering the biochemical parameters, a significantly higher pO2 concentration was registered under QSC conditions in the 10th repetition (p = 0.006). The ambient temperature during exercise should be taken into account to determine the anaerobic exercise capacity of the athletes. At higher temperatures, there is a greater capacity for maximal effort, in terms of maximal power achieved, but with a greater decrease in performance.

Purpose: This study sought to analyse and determine which of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals will be impacted by the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.
 Methodology: To achieve this, the study adopted an innovative approach and used ordinary linear regression as opposed to conventional logic models applied for such studies. The quantitative data collected was analysed using the SPSS version 25 for data analysis through the use of descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages as well as measures of central tendency such the mean. The target population that gave this data comprised of 100 respondends from the Qatari population, who were clustered into six categories through a multistage sampling design. The clusters included; migrant workers, Qatari nationals working with the government or the private sector, business people, experts in matters related to the SDGs under study, Government departments, and private practitioners such as lawyers.
 Findings:The study found that respondents anticipate and cited possible Sustainable Development Goals that will be achieved as a result of preparation and actual hosting of the FIFA 2022 World Cup in Qatar. These Goals were; Better Health and Wellbeing of all, Gender Equality, Sustained, Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth, Full and Productive Employment and Decent Work for all, Improved Infrastructure, Promotion of Inclusive and Sustainable Industrialisation and Fostering Innovation, Peace and Justice for all), and Partnerships as a means of achieving the SDGs.
 Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy:The study recommends that Qatar should leverage on the advantage of being World Cup hosts to achieve these sustainable Development Goals, and even more.