Islamic Monetary Economics: Insights from the Literature

The paper analyzes the impacts of Islamic and conventional Banks reserves' restrictions in Sudan. Comprehensively, those restrictions are necessary for health banks, performance and the viability of the macroeconomic performance in any country. The selected period of the analysis (2007-2009) is vital to study impacts of the Global Financial Crisis on the Sudanese economy. The paper introduces available data on banks institutions, macroeconomic policies and the central Bank of Sudan considering its part on controlling money supply and demand besides drawing policies for banks behaviors. It is conceivable from my conclusions here that there are conflicts between conventional and Islamic banks in reserves restrictions that impede normalized bank rules and the Central Sudan Bank's limitations during feasible financial and economic crisis. Thus, the slow and ineffective responses to the Global Financial crisis, in fact the failure can be due to those conflicts between the two banking regimes. Compared with other Islamic banking institutions that complied to recommended responses to the crisis that Sudanese case reveals differently. The Islamic banks could not respond effectively due to the so imposed interest rates on the required monetary subsidy from the Sudan Central Bank. Moreover, the deprivation of the oil revenues to the latter limited its abilities to support both the conventional and Islamic banks of the country. The results were manifested in their limited ability to cater for the required financing to the real productive economic sectors of Sudan. The consequent crisis of the year 2011 is a direct result of that lamed ability to finance the production sectors and their collapse in contributing to the stricken Sudanese economy.

This study aimed to examine the effect of Sharia Compliance, Islamic Corporate Governance, Capital Adequacy Ratio and zakat on financial performance at Islamic Commercial Banks. The independent variable used was Sharia Compliance, proxied by Islamic Income Ratio, Profit Sharing Ratio, Islamic Investment Ratio, Islamic Corporate Governance, Capital Adequacy Ratio and zakat. The dependent variable used in this study was financial performance as proxied by Return On Assset (ROA) in Islamic Commercial Banks. This research was a quantitative study using SPSS version 21 and Microsoft Excel. This study used a population of 14 Islamic commercial banks in Indonesia in 2015-2018, so that the total sample is 32. The data analysis technique used in this study was multiple linear regression analysis. Based on the result of this study, the Islamic Income Ratio, Profit Sharing Ratio, Islamic Investment Ratio, Islamic Corporate Governance, Capital Adequacy Ratio and zakat simultaneously affected the financial performance of Islamic Commercial Banks. Partial testing showed that the Islamic Income Ratio and Profit Sharing Ratio had a significant effect on the financial performance of Islamic Commercial Banks. Meanwhile, Islamic Investment Ratio, Islamic Corporate Governance, Capital Adequacy Ratio and zakat did not affect the financial performance of Islamic Commercial Banks.
 Keywords: Sharia Compliance, Islamic Income Ratio, Profit Sharing Ratio, Islamic Investment Ratio, Islamic Corporate Governance, CAR, Zakat, ROA, Islamic Bank.

PurposeThis paper aims to shed light on the risk structure in the presence of Islamic banking. The author concentrates on the relationship between Islamic banking and conventional banking in Turkey. Islamic banking and conventional banking are considered to be different kinds of sources for funding. Returns in the conventional banking are expected to be heavily influenced by the interest rate in the money market. However, Islamic banking returns are interest-free so that interest rate changes are not expected to affect the deposit returns in Islamic banks. Interest rates in the economy are a proxy to highlight the general risk level of the economy. By looking at the causal relationship between the deposit returns of both Islamic banks and conventional banks, it is possible to address the different types of banking in the general risk structure of the economy. This is one of the first studies to address the mentioned difference in banking sector in Turkish economy.Design/methodology/approachThis paper tries to identify the direction of causality between Islamic and conventional banking term deposit rates by means of Granger Causality. Also, Granger Causality test results will guide to explore the Islamic and conventional banking deposit return linkages. The author has extended the study with vector autoregressive analysis to understand the correlation structure between conventional deposit rates and the profit–loss sharing ratio of Islamic Banks. The author has also extended this study with impulse response functions to see whether the shocks hitting into the conventional banking affect Islamic banking and vice versa.FindingsThe results suggest that there is no significant clear relationship between both banking sectors. This result can be interpreted, as Islamic banks do not adjust their profit–loss sharing (PLS) ratios pegged to the interest rate offered by conventional banks. Also, conventional banks determine their interest rate without any connection to the Islamic banking PLS ratios. Overall results of this study contradict the findings of studies which conclude that Islamic banking might not be different from the conventional banking. It is reported that inferences from pair-wise Granger causality alone might be spurious, as the analysis based on non-stationary series can be a consequence of time functional characteristics of the time series.Social implicationsThe results can be taken as counter evidence to the hypothesis “Islamic banks determine their PLS ratios based on the interest rates offered by conventional banks”. This address that the Islamic banks may offer alternative financing methodology which has different procedure. Hence, Islamic finance can be taken as an alternative method with its asset-based healthier structure.Originality/valueThis is one of the first studies to address the Islamic versus interest-based banking difference in banking sector in Turkish economy. This paper tries to identify the direction of causality between Islamic and conventional banking term deposit rates by means of Granger causality.

Monetary management is an essential part of the objectives of Shari’ah under the umbrella of the preservation of wealth (Ma’al). Our primary sources: Qur’an and Sunn’ah, provide divine legislation on the prohibition of Riba to manage bases of monetary transaction. Further, the juristic tools facilitate scholars to propose solutions to meet the emerging issues on diversified aspects of society. Muslim scholars have always adapted and contributed to the Islamic finance system and regulation, theoretically and practically. In recent decades, Islamic banking and finance has seen strong momentum with double digit growth, fulfilling the monetary requirement of depositors on the liability side along with industry on the asset side. We seek to review the theoretical and empirical literature on Islamic monetary mangement. Monetary management in the Islamic economic context is still an area that needs more research. This paper examines how literature has been developed over time up until modern Islamic economic and banking practices. The findings suggest that Islamic monetary management has been gradually developed in recent years and such development is remarkable steps forward in pursuing Islamic monetary policy independently. In addition, Islamic monetary policy is proved to be relatively more effective compared to interest based conventional monetary policy. The implications of such findings have established new milestones for the central banks of all the countries, including the muslim majority countries for pursuing interest free Islamic monetary policy with full confidence. Furthermore, there are four major views on Islamic monetary policy and the central banks of the world should choose one of the best methods and views for the greater effectiveness of monetary policy because conventional monetary policy has been less effective in bringing full employment and price stability in recent years and financial crisis has crippled the interest based conventional economic systems quite badly.

This study aims to examine the Influence of Sharia Compliance and Islamic Corporate Governance on fraud on Islamic banks in Indonesia. The independent variable that was mummified was sharia compliance with Islamic Income Ratio (IsIR), Profit Sharing Ratio (PSR), Islamic Investment Ratio (IIR), and Islamic Corporate Governance. The dependent variable used is fraud that occurs in Islamic commercial banks in Indonesia. The research method used in this study is the method of library research. The type of data used is secondary data in the form of financial statement data and annual GCG implementation reports for the period of 2014 to 2018. The population in this study were all Sharia Commercial Banks (BUS) registered at Bank Indonesia in the period 2014 to 2018. The sample was selected using the purposive sampling method. The total sample used in this study amounted to 11 Islamic Commercial Banks with a study period of 5 years. The analytical method used in this study is multiple regression processed using SPSS version 23. The results of this study indicate that the variable sharia compliance as a proxy Islamic Income Ratio (ISIR), Profit Sharing Ratio (PSR), Islamic Investment Ratio (IIR), have a negative effect on Islamic bank’s fraud while Islamic corporate governance had no effect on fraud in Islamic banks in Indonesia.

The development of Islamic banking in Indonesia today has experienced a rapid increase both in quantity and quality. As an institution that operates based on sharia principles, Islamic banks have different characteristics and assessments of financial performance from conventional banks. Islamicity Performance Index is one of the new concepts as a method that can be used to evaluate the performance of Islamic banks which are not only financially but also able to evaluate the principles of fairness and halalness of an Islamic banking.This study aims to reveal the application of sharia principles to the performance of Islamic Commercial Banks in Indonesia for the 2017-2020 period by using the Islamicity Performance Index. The ratios used are Profit Sharing Ratio, Zakat Performance Ratio, Equitable Distribution Ratio, Directors-Employees Welfare Ratio, Islamic Investment Vs Non-Islamic Investment, Islamic Income Vs Non-Islamic Income and the AAOIFI Index. The data used in this research is secondary data. The population of this study is all Islamic Commercial Banks in Indonesia for the 2017-2020 period, with a sample of five banks. Sampling was carried out using purposive sampling method. From the results of this study, it was found that the performance of Islamic banks can be said to be "unsatisfactory" because they have implemented profit sharing in accordance with Islamic rules and sharia, although the share of profit sharing is still lower than other financing. Islamic banks in issuing zakat are still not maximal, namely below 1%. In distribution to stakeholders, Islamic banks have issued qards and donations, providing employee salaries and net income which are still not felt by the benefits of the stakeholders. In the comparison of the average salary of directors with the average salary of employees, there is a difference in the average salary which is too high so that justice must be upheld in Islamic institutions to reduce the gap between directors and employees. Islamic Commercial Banks invest their funds in the halal sector with a ratio yield of 100% and already have 99% income from halal income. Shariah principles set by AAOIFI as a whole have been fulfilled by Sharia Commercial Banks in terms of promotion costs, risk-weighted assets, non-performing financing, interest-free income, profitability and distribution of zakat, although many of these points have not been maximized. The conclusion is that Islamic Commercial Banks in Indonesia still need to evaluate their performance for a better future.

Análise do desempenho da política monetária no Brasil após o Plano Real

Innumerable changes have been witnessed in the Indian banking sector since last six decades. Various generations of financial sector reforms has changed the face and complexion of the Indian Banking Sector which is adopting various innovative practices with the focus on inclusive growth. Islamic banking is one such practice which is being considered in full fledged manner which otherwise has been practiced in an informal way. Islamic banking has set its foot on the path of rapid growth throughout the globe and India could not be isolated from it, looking at immense potential. The 1st Ernst & Young World Islamic Banking Competitiveness Report 2011 presented at the 18th Annual World Islamic Banking Conference stated that Islamic banking assets with commercial banks globally will reach US$1.1 trillion in 2012, a significant jump of 33% from their 2010 level of US$826 billion. The conventional banking as practiced by the Indian banking sector in its present form does stand in the way of the principles of Islamic banking which prohibits transaction on the basis of interest and operate on profit and loss based on Islamic principles. Introduction of interest free banking will require a lot of changes in the Banking Regulation Act. Innumerable changes have been witnessed in the Indian banking sector since last six decades. From nationalisation in the 60's to liberalisation in the 90's this sector has been forging ahead as a significant element of the Indian Financial System. A well developed banking system is a pre-requisite for smooth and effective functioning of any economy. The basic function of the banking sector has been mobilising savings from the surplus entities and channelising them to deficit entities for productive purposes. These functions are based on the premise of interest rates, interest being given to depositor and interest being charged by the bank for lending. An alternate to this conventional banking system is Islamic banking which prohibits transaction on the basis of interest and operate on profit and loss based on Islamic principles. Islamic banking has set its foot on the path of rapid growth throughout the globe and India could not be isolated from it, looking at immense potential. The 1st Ernst & Young World Islamic Banking Competitiveness Report 2011 presented at the 18th Annual World Islamic Banking Conference stated that Islamic banking assets with commercial banks globally will reach US$1.1 trillion in 2012, a significant jump of 33% from their 2010 level of US$826 billion. Looking at the global recognition of Islamic Banking the RBI also weighed the option of introducing Islamic banking in the main stream of the Indian banking sector and constituted a committee in 2007 to examine the issues relating to Islamic banking. This can be the appropriate time for introduction of Islamic banking in India, when world is gripped under the impact of the subprime crisis, fallout of conventional banking based on interest and interest trap. Before discussing the convergence of Islamic banking into the mainstream banking sector it would be appropriate to highlight the concept of Islamic banking. In the following discussion Islamic banking and interest free banking are used interchangeably. CONCEPT OF ISLAMIC BANKING Islamic banking is a banking practice as per the Islamic principles, prescribed in the ‗Shariah' known as ‗Fiqh al-Muamalat' (Islamic rules on transaction). The Islamic law prohibits ‗riba' which means interest in Islamic discourse. It operates on the principle of sharing both profits and risks by the borrower as well as lender. The depositor, who unlike in the conventional banking system is risk-averse, is a provider of capital and equally shares the risks with the bank who lends his funds. . The basic principle of Islamic banking is the prohibition of Riba- (Usury - or interest)

Islamic Finance receives more attention due to the growing need for financial services in countries with a Muslim population. However, the rules of Islam and its applications in daily life cause conflicts in today's conventional financial system. Since interest gains are prohibited in Islam according to the Quran, Islamic banks develop and use interest-free methods, unlike the conventional banking system. Islamic Finance introduced profit-sharing ratios to replace interest rates and to increase the participation of religious investors in the financial system. In this research, we compare interest rates with profit-sharing ratios in the Turkish banking market. We use wavelet and historical correlation analysis as a new methodology in evaluating the association between these two factors. Although it is presumed that Islamic banks operate as interest-free banks, our analysis confirms former studies and finds that profit-sharing ratios are highly correlated and coherent with interest rates in Turkey. We also find small differences among Islamic banks on how quickly profit-sharing ratios follow the market interest rate changes.

Purpose – This study investigates the influence of Islamic corporate governance (ICG) and the Islamicity performance index (IPI), as proxied by the profit-sharing ratio (PSR), zakat performance ratio (ZPR), and equitable distribution ratio (EDR), on the financial performance of Islamic banks in Indonesia. Furthermore, this study examines the moderating role of Islamic social reporting (ISR) in these relationships. Method – Employing a quantitative approach, this research utilizes secondary data obtained from the Financial Services Authority (FSA) of Indonesia and the official websites of Islamic banks. The sample comprises 10 Islamic commercial banks operating in Indonesia from 2019–2023. The study applies moderated regression analysis (MRA) to assess the proposed relationships. Findings – The findings reveal that, individually, both ICG and EDR positively and significantly influence financial performance, whereas PSR does not exhibit a significant effect. In contrast, ZPR demonstrates a negative and significant impact on financial performance. Moreover, ISR moderates the relationships between ICG, ZPR, and EDR with financial performance, while its moderating effect is not observed in the relationship between PSR and financial performance. ISR strengthens the impact of ICG and the IPI on Islamic banks' financial performance, enhancing the understanding of governance and performance in Islamic finance. Implications – The theoretical implication highlights ISR's role in enhancing ICG and IPI's impact, and the practical implication emphasizes its importance in boosting transparency and trust in Islamic banking.

This study aims to analyze and determine the effect of interest rates and GDP on the demand for money in contemporary Islamic society. This type of research is descriptive and associative. While the type of data is documentary data, the data source is secondary data and time series data from the first quarter of 2015 to the fourth quarter of 2018. The analysis tool is a simultaneous equation model using the Two Stages Least Squared (TSLS) method.
 The results of the study conclude that the existing estimates explain that interest rates do not have a significant effect on the demand for money. This fact supports the initial hypothesis which states that there is no effect of interest rates in motivating a contemporary society to hold money in Indonesia. What has a significant effect on the demand for real money based on estimates, is that the level of income in accordance with the theory of income levels will have a positive effect on the demand for money.
 Based on the results of the research conducted, suggestions can be given, namely, even though the results show that there is no significant relationship between the interest rate and the demand for money, it is not necessarily the insignificant effect of the interest rate because most Indonesian people embrace Islam and have good awareness. against the prohibition of interest, but it could also be due to the high rate of profit sharing from Islamic banks.
 So that there is no such public attitude, we still need to promote Islamic banking products, and a good explanation about the prohibition of interest. In addition, the improvement of Islamic banking services is also very important in this regard.

Critics of Islamic banking argue, that how could Islamic banking work when interest (riba) is prohibited? Those in favour argue that Islamic banks can operate without interest. This is the contention of the paper. Islamic bank is a banking which operates without the norm of interest. However, the Muslim scholars have never seriously discussed the three basic questions. Riba, interest, are riba and interest synonymous. The most common application of riba is on monetary transaction relating to “loans” and “credits”. A unique feature of Islamic banking is its profit-and-loss sharing (PLS) paradigm, which is predominantly based on the mudarabah (profit-sharing) and musharaka (joint venture) concepts of Islamic contracting. However, Islamic banks are also criticized for not applying the principle of mudaraba in an acceptable manner. Where banks are eager to take part in profit-sharing but they have little tolerance for risk. Jaiz bank plc, the first Islamic bank in Nigeria, is a quoted public company owned by over 26,000 shareholders. Based on recommendations from Islamic Development Bank (IDB), which is also a shareholder of the bank, Jaiz Bank PLC had partnered with Islamic Bank of Bangladesh (IBBL). However, the Islamic Banks, generally, seem to attract a fraction of the business of financial transactions in any country where conventional banks operate. The challenge facing Islamic banks is the diversity of opinion among the Sharia scholars. Whether the particular practice or product, is Sharia compliant. The paper therefore, concludes that, by prohibition of riba, Islam wishes to establish an economic system where all forms of exploitation are eliminated. The difficulty to understand the prohibition comes from lack of appreciation of the whole complex of Islamic values. Thus, the future of Islamic banks depends not only upon investing in new products but also upon the satisfying the faith of the stakeholders.

This research centers on the impact of Profit Sharing Ratio scheme, murabaha financing, and Non-Performing Finance (NPF) on the financial performance of Islamic banks in Indonesia, specifically focusing on the Return on Assets (ROA) metric. Utilizing a quantitative methodology, data from 12 Islamic Commercial Banks from 2014-2023 is analyzed using multiple linear regression techniques with EViews 10 software. The findings show that the Profit Sharing Ratio has no significant effect on the Return on Assets of Islamic Commercial Banks. Although Profit Sharing Ratio is a factor that can reflect the profit sharing between banks and customers, this finding indicates that the volatility of profit sharing schemes does not directly affect the profitability of banks, which could be due to the volatile and uncertain nature of the Islamic market itself. On the other hand, murabaha financing shows a significant effect on Return on Assets, indicating that fixed-margin financing is more effective in increasing bank profitability. Murabaha financing, which is based on the principle of sale and purchase with a clear margin, provides stability and predictability in cash flows, which is important in managing the financial performance of Islamic banks, compared to profit-sharing-based financing products that depend on market fluctuations. In addition, Non-Performing Finance has a significant impact on the financial performance of banks. High Non-Performing Finance indicates a high risk of non-performing financing, which can reduce profits and strain the financial stability of the bank. Hence, improved risk management is essential for Islamic banks to stay profitable and financially healthy.

This study aims to examine the effect of Islamic Corporate Governance and Sharia Compliance on indications of fraud occurring in Indonesia’s Islamic Banks from 2016 to 2020. The independent variables are Islamic Corporate Governance and Sharia Compliance with the Proxy of Islamic Income Ratio and Profit Sharing Ratio. The dependent variable is fraud in Islamic Commercial Banks. The population in this study were all Islamic Banks registered in the Financial Services Authority in the period 2016 to 2020. The samples were selected using the purposive sampling method. In this study, there were 11 Islamic Banks with a 5 years research period so that the total sample used in this study amounted to 55. The analytical method used in this study was logistic regression which was processed using SPSS version 25. The results of this study indicate that the Islamic Corporate Governance variable has a positive influence on indications of fraud occurring in Islamic Commercial Banks, Sharia Compliance with the Proxy Profit Sharing Ratio has a negative influence on indications of fraud occurrence in Islamic Commercial Banks while Sharia Compliance with the proxy of Islamic Income Ratio does not affect the indications of the occurrence of frauds in Islamic Commercial Banks.

The Islamization of banking, monetary policy, and the financial system began in 1975 after the setup of the Islamic development bank (IDB). Firstly, this paper discusses a concise framework of Islamic monetary policy. Then it presents the success and obstacles of the Islamization process of the monetary policy among the 27 OIC member Muslim countries in Asia and provides future directions to enhance the Islamization process. This paper employed secondary data and used the three criteria to measure the Islamization process: 1) Islamization of commercial banking; 2) making Islamic banking guidelines & regulations; 3) innovation and starting the Islamic monetary policy instruments. This paper finds that more than 154 Islamic commercial banks are operating under the Conventional monetary policy in 23 countries with very few Islamic monetary tools. On the contrary, Iran follows full-pledged Islamic monetary policy with 30 Islamic commercial banks. More precisely, in these countries, only 17% of total banks are Islamic bank, whereas 83% are still interest-based banks. Regrettably, two countries (Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) do not have any tools of Islamic monetary policy. This paper also finds that though 64% of Islamic banks were established during 1970-2000 periods in 27 countries, only 25% of countries prepared Islamic banking regulation at this period. On the other hand, 75% of Islamic banking regulations were made during 2000-2015 periods. Most common Islamic monetary instruments are project-based Sukuk, project-based debt instruments, etc. Finally, this paper recommends six steps to enhance the Islamization process.