IS GLOBAL WARMING OUR CONCERN OR NOT?

The average global temperatures on our planet are increasing due to rising anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, in particular carbon dioxide (CO2).1, 2 There is an urgent need to call for action on global warming, which is resulting in extreme weather and related catastrophes.1, 2 The Earth's rising temperature is evidenced by warming of the oceans, melting glaciers, rising sea levels, and the diminished snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere. Climate-related factors can affect interactive atmospheric components (chemical and biological) and their interrelationship with human health. Climate change, a physical and meteorological event that affects health in the whole biosphere, started to receive attention around the mid-twentieth century. Air pollution is the driving force of the Earth's warming powered by the greenhouse effect (Figure 1). Environmental changes are occurring in frequency, intensity, type of precipitation, and extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, blizzards, thunderstorms, sandstorms, and hurricanes. These are real and daunting challenges for the human and biosphere health, impacting the food and water supplies.1, 2 Urbanization, with its high level of vehicle emissions and westernized lifestyle, is linked to the rising levels of particulate matter in the air, food supplies, soil, fresh water, and oceans. These environmental changes are correlated with the increased frequency of respiratory allergic diseases and bronchial asthma observed over recent decades in most industrialized countries and is continuously rising in developing countries.1-5 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2018 Global warming of 1.5°C: Summary for policymakers. Geneva IPCC.6 IPCC 2018 Special Report—Global Warming of 1.5°C asserts that emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) caused by human activity must reach "net zero" by 2050 to keep the average rise in global temperature at 1.5°C above preindustrial levels to reduce catastrophic climate change risk on populations. The Report highlights that "temperature extremes on land are projected to warm more than the global mean surface temperature (high confidence); extreme hot days in mid-latitudes warm by up to about 5°C at global warming of 1.5°C and about 4°C at 2°C, and extreme cold nights in high latitudes warm by up to about 4.5°C at 1.5°C and about 6°C at 2°C (high confidence). The number of hot days is projected to increase in most land regions, with the highest increases in the tropics (high confidence)." This issue of Allergy focuses on the interrelationship between climate change, air pollution, and human health.3-5, 7, 8 Climate change is an important medical aspect in allergology as we are observing an increasing incidence of allergic diseases indirectly related to rising temperatures and are becoming a high socioeconomic burden.1-3, 9 Allergies and asthma appear to be at the front line of the sequelae of climate change along with infectious and cardiovascular diseases.1, 5 Cecchi et al focus on the development and exacerbation of allergic diseases can be explained in terms of the exposome, a concept that includes all the environmental exposures from conception onwards. Multiple factors can trigger a pollen-induced respiratory allergy, such as airborne endotoxin levels and microbial composition of pollen, and these comprise a "pollen exposome."4, 10 Susan Prescott has written an editorial in this issue bringing the attention to climate change and biodiversity aspects. At the time of Neil Armstrong's lunar landing 50 years ago, Prof. Rene Dubos, a renowned microbiologist, delivered the seminal lecture "The Spaceship Earth." He was ahead of his time and warned of an "altered immunity" driven by environmental problems and loss of biodiversity. Most of his predictions proved correct, and we are now understanding at a molecular level the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in allergic diseases.9 Climate change indirectly affects allergies by altering the pollen concentrations, allergenic potential, composition, migration of species, and growth of new ones. Air pollution and climate change have resulted in the faster growth of allergenic plants, increasing the aeroallergen load for patients with inhalant allergy. Phenological studies indicate longer pollen seasons and emerge earlier in the year.1, 4, 5, 9 Pollen and mold allergies are generally used to evaluate the interrelationship between air pollution and allergic respiratory diseases, such as rhinitis and asthma. Studies show that plants exhibit enhanced photosynthesis and reproductive effects and produce more pollen as a response to high atmospheric levels of CO2.1, 4, 9 Pollen allergens have been demonstrated to trigger the release of pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory mediators that accelerate the onset of allergy and the IgE-mediated sensitization. Lightning storms or wet conditions rupture the pollen grains releasing the allergenic proteins that cause asthma exacerbations in patients with pollinosis (thunderstorm asthma).1, 3, 4, 8, 11 As a result of climate change, patients with seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma have more intense symptoms and need stronger medication.1, 4, 9 In addition to respiratory illnesses, Fairweather et al. demonstrate the effect of environmental changes on cardiovascular, brain and mind, gastrointestinal, skin, and immunologic and metabolic effects.1, 3, 4, 8 The migration of stinging and biting insects to cooler climates has caused an increase in insect allergies in those areas. Prunicki et al focus on the contribution of wildfires and deforestation and their contribution to global warming and immunological effects. It should be noted that in the last fifty years, half of the pluvial forests on Earth have been lost. Deforestation and forestation degradation is estimated to occur at a rate of 13 million hectares per year, mostly for agricultural purposes. Wildfires are becoming increasingly frequent, posing a serious risk to human health. The fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in wildfire smoke exacerbates asthma attacks, among other health problems. A study of 67 subjects demonstrated that those exposed to wildfire smoke had significantly higher levels of C-reactive protein and IL-1β compared with controls.7 The elevated levels of these two biomarkers are indicative of airway inflammation. Global warming and climate change need actions throughout the whole world with joined forces of all capabilities. These efforts are sometimes hampered by the unresponsiveness of governmental institutions and the general population, and the lack of infrastructure and poverty. An action plan is needed to disseminate information on health-related problems associated with climate change. Patients with pollen allergies or asthma should be educated on the higher health risk during a thunderstorm or pollen season and the need for appropriate medication if staying outdoors. In collaboration with environmental organizations, physicians should take the lead to promote actions to mitigate air pollution and advocate the need to reduce global warming to protect our health. CA reports grants from Allergopharma, Idorsia, Swiss National Science Foundation, Christine Kühne—Center for Allergy Research and Education, European Commission's Horizon's 2020 Framework Programme, Cure, Novartis Research Institutes, AstraZeneca, Scibase, and Sanofi/Regeneron. GD'A declares no conflicts of interest.

Global Warming is the recent and ongoing increase in global average surface temperature. We are currently experiencing serious changes in earth usual temperature, a notable climate change in totality referred to as global warming. Climate change is the long-term shift in weather patterns and average temperatures. Ordinary weather shifts can be in a particular place or the entire earth in totality as it is for the current earth warming. Whereas natural changes in sun’s activity, large volcanic actions and earth orbital movements accounted for such climate changes in the past, since 1800 Human activities like burning of fossil fuels; coal, oil, deforestation and industrialization accounted for the unprecedented Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions in the 21st century, leading to exceedingly greater global average surface temperatures. The current extreme warming is a global climate change in totality. This paper aimed at exploring global warming and its implication as climate change reality of the 21st century, suggesting cost-effective youth inclusive mitigation strategies. Results: Published literature reveal two underlying causes of climate change as, Natural processes and Human activities. The two, are major sources of Green House-gas emissions that directly bring about global warming-climate change effect. GHGs, form a stratospheric layer that prevent excess heat escape, thereby excessively warming the earth-atmosphere surface. Greenhouse gases, Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water vapour (H2O), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3) are natural GHGs, but also man-made (synthetic GHGs) like Fluorinated Gases (F-Gases); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCS), Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) with more Global warming potential than natural GHGs, together cause extreme warming of earth. GHGs form a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and cause global warming. Consequences include raising sea levels with flooding of coastal towns, longer and more damaging wild fires, shrinking of ice sheets and snow cover, thawing permafrost, Ocean acidification, famine/hunger, Eco-Anxiety, Drought effects on flora and Fauna and extinction of species. Urgent Youth inclusive mitigation actions include, moving away from use of fossil fuels to renewable energy use like solar power, wind energy and geothermal, ensure energy efficiency and adopt sustainable means of transport like buses, youth inclusive awareness campaigns, afforestation and reforestation, reduced waste production, restoration and conservation of ecosystems wetlands, emission reduction policy implementation of 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change, as well as use of Carbon Capture technologies. Conclusion: Global warming is real. The effects are catastrophic than ever before in the 21st century due to accumulation of GHGs in atmosphere from Human activities. Urgent mitigation needed today is everyone’s role including youth. Together, we can save our planet by making it green again.

Climate changes, particularly global warming, are attributable to human activities, mainly fossil fuel burning which releases greenhouse gases such as CO2. The emissions of CO2 continue to rise, and climate models project 1.1℃ to 6.4℃ rise of average surface temperature over the 21st century. Health effects from global warming range from increased mortality by extreme weather, floods, and storms to increase of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and diarrhea. Korea is not immune to health impacts from global warming. Data on daily temperature of Seoul in 1994 showed a clear association with daily mortality. Rise of sea and surface temperatures also indicates possibility of increase in infectious diseases in Korea. Concentrations of ambient pollutants, particularly ozone, were shown to be associated with surface temperature. Therefore, we are already in the influence of climate change. Adaptation strategy to climate changes is basically a matter of public health. Well-prepared programs for responding to climate changes will minimize health risks. The most effective responses are strengthening of the key functions of environmental management, surveillance, and response to natural disasters and changes of disease patterns associated with global warming. We need to intensify our efforts in preventive public health, and ensure sustainable development and protection of ecosystem for human health.

Climactic changes, especially global warming, are potentially the largest global threat to human health and the source of the greatest number of cases of disease. If current emissions and land use trends continue unchecked, future generations will face more serious conditions, including injury, disease, and death related to natural disasters and heat waves, higher rates of climate-related infections, widespread malnutrition, and more allergy and air pollutionrelated morbidity and mortality. This review highlights the relationship between global climate changes and human health and provides some suggestions for improvement. According to the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published in 2007, global warming is caused by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The most important GHG is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released by the burning of fossil fuels and, to a lesser extent, by land use practices, followed by nitrous oxide and methane. IPCC predicts that global temperatures will rise 1.8°C-4.0°C by 2099. According to the report, we can expect a significant rise in sea levels, massive species extinctions, changes in storm and drought cycles, altered ocean circulation, and redistribution of vegetation after crossing the “tipping point” of global warming. Human health will be adversely affected by the accelerating climate change. This review stimulates health care providers to provide quality care to susceptible individuals confronting new threats from climactic changes, as well as to work toward a mitigation of the drivers of climate change at the individual, community, and policy levels as part of a long-term commitment to protecting public health.

Water sprays from an open fire hydrant in Brooklyn, New York, in the midst of a July 2010 heat wave that affected much of the eastern United States.In 2007 the New York City Department of Environmental Protection first teamed up with Alianza Dominicana, a Washington Heights community organization, to educate city residents about the appropriate use of fire hydrants and other ways

The major challenge of the current century is global warming and climate change. If the policy is not changed, combustion of fossil fuels would lead to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the atmosphere and result in climate warming that may increase the temperature by 1.30°C by the end of the current century. Global warming is a severe issue that leads to swings in the average temperature of the world and causes significant shifts in weather and climate. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentrations increased in the atmosphere that exerts a warming effect like increased temperature and drought on positive plant–microbe interactions. As microorganisms are a significant component of carbon and nitrogen cycles, they play an essential role in the discharge and removal of GHGs and hold great significance, which in turn are responsible for global warming. Climate change is disturbing the propagation of species and associations between organisms. Microbes live in combination with many other species. Some are beneficial, some pathogenic, and some of which have little or no effect in complex communities. Natural communities are made of organisms that have varying attributes, dispersal capacity. Therefore, it is doubtful that they will all react to climatic change in the same manner. This presently causes it conceivable to test whether some general patterns occur and whether various gatherings of plant-related microorganisms react diversely or similarly to climate 126change. Soil microorganisms control the conversion of nutrients, provide supplements to plants, permit conjunction among neighbors, and changes in soil microorganism–plant communications, which could have massive repercussion for the composition of plant community and function of the ecosystem. Disjuncts in plant–pollinator and plant–herbivore collaborations have been relatively very much depicted. However, the plant–microbes relationship has received less attention. According to most of the studies, elevated CO2 had a positive impact on arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi and plant-associated microorganisms, whereas plant growth-promoting bacteria, endophytic fungi have variable effects. Similarly, the effects of increased temperature were more variable on positive plant-related microorganisms. The microorganisms are critical players of carbon, nitrogen, and other biogeochemical cycles, and their job as for climate change requires consideration. Notwithstanding, micro-organisms are neglected from most conversations of climate change. It is because of the absence of satisfactory comprehension of microbial action which has not been considered appropriately in most climate change models. In this chapter, we shed light on how global climate change influence soil microbe–plant interactions directly and indirectly, and discuss the exciting questions and areas for future research. It was observed that microorganisms assume important role regarding global climate change, so microorganisms ought to never be ignored of their due significance in environmental change models as well as debates on this issue.

Commentary: Reporting on global warming: A study in headlines

I. INTRODUCTION II. HEAT WAVE DEFINITIONS A. Heat Waves B. Heat-related Illnesses and Mortality C. Demographics 1. Individual Characteristics D. Place and Space Matter 1. Geographic Differences 2. Intra-urban Differences III. CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEAT WAVES IV. HEAT WAVES AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION A. Disbelief and Blaming the Victims B. Invisibility of Damage and Media C. Heat Waves and Property Damage 1. Media Coverage 2. Government Response to Disasters V. HEAT WAVE MITIGATION A. Heat Wave Emergency Plans 1. When to Issue Heat Wave Warnings 2. Targeting the Warnings and Making them Effective B. The Importance of Air Conditioning 1. Cooling Centers 2. Availability a. Air Conditioning Required b. Funding LIHEAP C. Large Structural Changes 1. Energy Efficiency and Supply 2. Energy Efficiency 3. Reducing the Urban Heat Island Effect VI. CONCLUSION I. INTRODUCTION Global climate change is almost certain to increase the frequency and intensity of heat waves. Over the last fifty years we have seen an increase in heat wave events, an increase scientists believe is the result, at least in part, of human activity. (1) The recently released Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that heat waves will increase over most land areas over the course of this century. (2) Conservative modeling estimates predict that these increases, absent significant reductions in carbon emissions, will result in a 70% increase in heat-wave deaths in the U.S. over the next forty years. (3) Heat waves differ in important respects from natural disasters like hurricanes or earthquakes. Our collective memory about these events fades quickly once temperatures return to normal. Few people seem to remember, for example, that the Chicago heat wave of 1995 killed more than 700 people, (4) or that more than 52,000 Europeans perished in the extreme heat of the summer of 2003--including more than 14,800 in France alone. (5) Even the 2006 deadly heat wave in California, in which at least 140 and as many as 466 people died, has faded quickly from public consciousness. (6) Furthermore, a prolonged U.S. heat wave during the summer of 1980, during which researchers estimate that between 1,500 and 10,000 people perished, has been long forgotten. (7) Increased heat waves from climate change are not, of course, the only catastrophic effects expected from global warming. Some of the most dramatic effects may require large structural and political changes. For example, massive sea level rise will require infrastructure investments to protect vulnerable shorelines, and prolonged drought may cause political upheaval and unrest in areas of the world where water is already scarce. The good news about increased heat waves, by contrast, is that we already posses the know-how to respond to the corresponding increase in health risk. Heat waves are not a new phenomenon, and some jurisdictions have made impressive strides in reducing heat-wave deaths. But many jurisdictions across the U.S. are ill-prepared to cope. (8) If Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath have taught us anything, it is that we need local, contextualized preparation (taking into account cultural, social and economic realities) to minimize catastrophe. I explore the phenomenon of heat waves in this article for two reasons. (9) First, heat waves already pose a large health threat to our most vulnerable populations and, though we possess the means and know-how to prevent many heat-wave deaths, many U.S. jurisdictions are unprepared to cope. Second, the future looks even worse. As the IPCC Fourth Assessment warns, global climate change will very likely increase the frequency and intensity of extreme heat events over the course of the 21st century. …

Boykoff and Mansfield (2008), in a recent paper in this journal, provide a detailedanalysis of the representation of climate change in the UK tabloid newspapers.They conclude that the representation of this issue in these papers ‘diverged fromthe scientific consensus that humans contribute to climate change’. That is,portrayal of climate change in tabloid newspapers contradicts the conclusions ofthe fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment (IPCC2007). Is it healthy to have the scientific consensus challenged so frequently? Butshould we worry about systematic misrepresentation of scientific consensus? Webelieve the answer to both of these questions is yes. To present regular updates onclimate change issues in the popular press is important because the changes inbehaviour needed to achieve substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissionsrequire a broad understanding of the basic facts. However, if the majority ofreaders receive misleading information, it will be difficult to achieve the level ofpublic understanding necessary to make such reductions needed to avoiddangerous climate change (Schellnhuber

Last year was one for the record books. In 2006, the United States experienced the warmest surface temperature since 1895. It was also the eleventh year since 1995 to rank among the warmest worldwide ever recorded. The decade prior saw many other extreme weather events. In 2003, a brutal summer heat wave in Europe killed at least 22,000 people. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch stalled over Central America and released six feet of rain, causing massive mudslides and claiming 11,000 lives. After that storm, Honduras reported thousands of cases of cholera, malaria, and dengue fever.

The period 2020/2021 was an unprecedented and historic time for industrial, economic, and societal activities all over the world with great challenges to human health, the ecosystems, and other aspects of human endeavors owing to the COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 (CV-19) pandemic which is now a topical aspect of research interest. Despite the negative impacts of the CV-19 pandemic, there are also positive reports during the CV-19 pandemic such as the reduction of gas flare, reduction in the burning of fossil fuels from automobile exhaust and a reduction in the other ensuing factors of greenhouse gases emissions (which is one of the major drives for global warming and climate change as well as other environmental effluences). Hence, this brief perspective review study is centered on greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. The study employs a methodical approach to analyze some already available research studies from existing publications and databases on GHG emission using the perception during the CV-19 pandemic. The specific findings from this review show that, from the meteorological perspective, the global response to the catastrophe ensuing from the CV-19 pandemic has a great influence on the reduction of GHGs, the reduction in the burning of fossil fuels from automobiles and industrial devices, and the reduction in the other ensuing factors of GHG emission. Hence, it will not be far from the truth to conclude that there is a possible positive connection between the CV-19 pandemic and GHG emissions. The study has a direct impact on the environment owing to the negative and positive environmental consequences of the CV-19 pandemic. Suggestions and recommendations in the form of future prospects of GHG emission vis-à-vis global warming and climate change are also discussed. Furthermore, suggestions on how to improve food security and agriculture during a pandemic such as the CV-19 outbreak period are highlighted.

Radley Horton,1,a Daniel Bader,1,a Yochanan Kushnir,2 Christopher Little,3 Reginald Blake,4 and Cynthia Rosenzweig5 1Columbia University Center for Climate Systems Research, New York, NY. 2Ocean and Climate Physics Department, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, NY. 3Atmospheric and Environmental Research, Lexington, MA. 4Physics Department, New York City College of Technology, CUNY, Brooklyn, NY. 5Climate Impacts Group, NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies; Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University Earth Institute, New York, NY

The problem of global warming and global climate change cannot be ignored in any discussion regarding long-term energy policy. And the solution, as part of a comprehensive sustainable energy plan, is putting a fee or tax on carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon dioxide is a pollutant, not when naturally exhaled by animals but rather through the release of naturally sequestered carbon by human practice of burning of fossil fuels. To put this in perspective, we first look at the carbon dioxide problem, and then we look at pricing carbon as part of the overall energy policy solution. The main problem is, of course, the ever-increasing emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide levels have risen to above 408 ppm in 2017 from 316 ppm in 1958 according to the Mauna Loa Observatory, which is above the estimated 275 ppm preindustrial concentrations. This has translated into global warming, which is causing climate change. As the globe warms, we experience more extreme weather and climate events. Coastal communities are some of the hardest hit as sea level rises and storm tides roar in at record heights. Food resources are being impacted by new flood and drought cycles and the exacerbation of invasive plants and insects that impact crops. The solution is complex, but begins with carbon pricing. This requires federal action to level the economic playing field. As has been seen in states such as California and regions such as the Northeast states under RGGI, we find that reducing emissions does not negatively impact GDP, which in fact it improves. This “decoupling” is important in justifying a fee or tax on carbon dioxide. Cap-and-trade mechanisms have been used on the state level, but as yet have not been applied on a national basis.

In 1992, a mental-models-based survey in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, revealed that educated laypeople often conflated global climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion, and appeared relatively unaware of the role of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions in global warming. This study compares those survey results with 2009 data from a sample of similarly well-educated laypeople responding to the same survey instrument. Not surprisingly, following a decade of explosive attention to climate change in politics and in the mainstream media, survey respondents in 2009 showed higher awareness and comprehension of some climate change causes. Most notably, unlike those in 1992, 2009 respondents rarely mentioned ozone depletion as a cause of global warming. They were also far more likely to correctly volunteer energy use as a major cause of climate change; many in 2009 also cited natural processes and historical climatic cycles as key causes. When asked how to address the problem of climate change, while respondents in 1992 were unable to differentiate between general "good environmental practices" and actions specific to addressing climate change, respondents in 2009 have begun to appreciate the differences. Despite this, many individuals in 2009 still had incorrect beliefs about climate change, and still did not appear to fully appreciate key facts such as that global warming is primarily due to increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and the single most important source of this carbon dioxide is the combustion of fossil fuels.

Educational intervention approaches to ameliorate adverse public health and environmental effects from global warming