Investigating the Effects of Fused Deposition Modeling Parameters on Carbon Fiber-Reinforced PLA Performance

In this study, a polylactic acid–bronze (PLA–Br) composite was fabricated using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique. The effects of key FDM process parameters on tensile properties were investigated through Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on a Central Composite Design (CCD). Printing speed (PS), extruder temperature (ET), and raster angle (RA) were selected as input variables, while maximum failure load (MFL), elongation at break (EB), and Young's modulus (YM) were considered as response variables. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and RSM approaches were employed to develop predictive models. The experimental results and analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that PS, ET, and RA significantly influence the tensile properties of the PLA–Br composite. Specifically, a decrease in PS combined with increases in ET and RA led to improvements in maximum failure load and Young's modulus, while reducing elongation at break. A comprehensive statistical evaluation demonstrated that the ANN model outperformed the RSM model in predictive capability across all tensile responses. The ANN model achieved higher coefficients of determination ( R 2 , adjusted R 2 , and predicted R 2 ) along with lower error metrics, including mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean squared error (RMSE), indicating superior accuracy and generalization performance. Finally, the FDM process parameters were optimized using the ANN model in conjunction with Pareto‐based multi‐objective optimization and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). The optimal conditions were identified as a printing speed of 65.66 mm/s, an extruder temperature of 222.69°C, and a raster angle of 87.98°. Under these conditions, the predicted maximum failure load, elongation at break, and Young's modulus were 225.88 N, 1.81 mm, and 10.71 MPa, respectively.

Influence of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and printing parameters on the thermal and mechanical performance of polylactic acid (PLA) / thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) polymer

Three-dimensional printing technology offers significant advantages in the production of orthopedic casts, providing a promising alternative to conventional plaster and fiberglass materials. Polylactic acid (PLA) is widely used for this purpose; however, its adoption is limited due to poor mechanical properties, including high brittleness, low thermal stability, and limited elongation. These challenges can be mitigated by blending PLA with other biodegradable polymers. This study investigated a blend of PLA with poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), a type of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), and polycaprolactone (PCL) for the development of 3D printed orthopedic casts. The key mechanical properties-tensile strength, percent elongation at break, Young's modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus, and impact strength-were evaluated as a function of the printing parameters, including nozzle temperature, layer height, and raster angle. The grey relational analysis (GRA) approach was applied to optimize these mechanical properties. The optimal printing parameters were found to be a nozzle temperature of 180 °C, a layer height of 0.18 mm, and a raster angle of 0°, resulting in a tensile strength of 44.4 ± 4.4 MPa, an elongation at break of 68.5 ± 11.6%, a Young's modulus of 948.7 ± 25.1 MPa, a flexural strength of 54.6 ± 8.9 MPa, a flexural modulus of 1549.3 ± 141 MPa, and an impact strength of 80.77 ± 5.6 J/m. Statistical analysis using analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that for tensile strength, 50.18% was influenced by the raster angle, 26.38% by the layer height, and 18.92% by the nozzle temperature; for flexural strength, 69.81% was influenced by the raster angle, 20.67% by the layer height, and 3.53% by the nozzle temperature; and for impact strength, 75.11% was influenced by the raster angle, 13.16% by the layer height, and 4.45% by the nozzle temperature.

Tensile properties of 3D-printed CNT-SGF reinforced PLA composites

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a popular additive manufacturing (AM) process, primarily used for fabricating polymer components. Optimizing the mechanical properties of FFF components, such as their elastic moduli, is crucial in many applications. This study focuses on adjusting the elastic properties of polymer components manufactured through FFF process by selecting appropriate process parameters. The elastic constants of the anisotropic FFF components are measured by using ultrasonic testing (UT). Response surface methodology (RSM) is employed to determine the optimal settings for these parameters to achieve the desired elastic properties. The effects of layer thickness, printing speed, and raster angle on Young's modulus are explored. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to identify the contributions of each process factor on the output responses. According to ANOVA results, the optimal conditions identified are: a printing speed of 2040 mm/min, a layer thickness of 0.2 mm, and a raster angle of 29°. These conditions collectively achieved the maximum Young's modulus. The differences between the predicted and measured moduli for all responses are less than 5%. The structural factors influencing the results are examined by analyzing the fracture surfaces of the tensile testing (TT) specimens with field emission scanning electron microscopy. Additional measurements of other properties, including ultrasound velocity and wave attenuation, are conducted on the samples. The findings indicate that optimizing the parameters by setting them to their minimum values does not only improve the maximum elastic modulus in specific directions but also reduces attenuation. It is concluded that the desired elastic modulus for a component can be achieved by properly adjusting the process parameters.Highlights Optimizing AM parameters to achieve the desired elastic properties of FFF samples. Examining the effects of each AM parameter by utilizing ANOVA and RSM methods. Measuring the anisotropic elastic properties of AM samples by UT. Verifying UT results through TT and measuring attenuation.

The ever‐increasing demand for additive manufacturing (AM) is driven by the technology's rapid prototyping and flexible manufacturing benefits. Among the various AM techniques, fused filament fabrication (FFF) is one of the most commonly used techniques, in which thermoplastic polymer filaments are deposited layer by layer to create the final part. This technique has been used extensively in various sectors. However, new materials have yet to be developed for use in FFF. This research aims to introduce a new biodegradable highly amorphous polyvinyl alcohol (HAVOH), commercially known as G‐Polymer (GP), into the scope of FFF, to propose a process window for the fabrication of parts with enhanced mechanical properties and to discover the process‐structure–property relationship for this material. This study investigates the effect of five key parameters in GP FFF, including raster angle, number of contours, nozzle temperature, build platform temperature, and print speed. The results of the chemical, thermal, and thermo‐mechanical analysis of the filaments before and after hot extrusion of the 3D printer nozzle showed a significant increase in the mechanical properties of the hot‐extruded filaments. In addition, the mechanical characterization of 3D printed parts showed that increasing the number of contours can improve the mechanical properties of parts, while the raster angle can have a complex effect. The mechanical properties of the parts are also improved by reducing the temperature of the nozzle and the build platform. Printing speed, as an essential parameter in AM, was related to the previously mentioned parameters, and the results showed that increasing the printing speed could improve the UTS and Young's modulus of the 3D printed part.Highlights A novel biodegradable polymer (HAVOH) was introduced into the scope of FFF. The hot extruded G‐Polymer filament from the nozzle showed improved mechanical properties. 180°C nozzle and room temperature platform resulted in improved mechanical properties. 3D printed parts with +45°/−45° raster angle show improved mechanical properties 110 mm/s print speed results in higher mechanical strength than 70 mm/s print speed.

This experimental study focuses on exploring the mechanical characteristics and characterization of fractured surface of polyethylene terephthalate with 15% carbon fiber (PETCF-15) composite in fused deposition modeling (FDM) process. Extrusion temperature, printing speed, layer thickness and raster angle are considered in this study. Taguchi’s design of experiments (L9) is used to perform experiments considering four process parameters: extrusion temperature (275–285°C,), layer thickness (0.1–0.3 mm), print speed (50–150 mm/s), and raster angle (0°–90°). The tensile testing performed in this work is in accordance with the standard tests prepared in the shape of dog-bone style. The printed PETCF-15 specimens exhibited the maximum tensile strength 62 N/mm 2 , a yield strength of 15.81 N/mm 2 and maximum strain value of 10.9 %, as determined from the experimental results. The weighted grey Taguchi method is used to determine the optimum parametric setting values that would correspond to maximum tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation at break. The tests revealed that the best combinations are extrusion temperature of 275°C, print speed of 50 mm/s, layer thickness of 0.1 mm with the raster angle at 0°. The extrusion temperature (37.67%) and raster angle (49.88%) are identified as the most influential parameters affecting the grey relational grade, as determined through grey relational analysis. The experimental results obtained were verified with finite element analysis using ABAQUS. Fracture surfaces after tensile tests are analyzed using a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) that allows understanding of failure modes and the microstructure of the fractured surface. The strong correlation between experimental, numerical, and microstructural results validates the robustness of the approach and confirms the potential of optimized PETCF-15 components for high-performance structural applications in the aerospace and automotive sectors.

In this study, the relationships between porosity and Young's moduli measured by an acoustic pulse method, a resonance frequency technique, a tensile test and a bending test of sintered irons were investigated. Moreover, tensile strength and proof stress were measured by tensile test, and these values and Young's modulus were evaluated against porosity.Young's moduli measured by the acoustic pulse method, resonance frequency technique and tensile test, except for the bending test, were nearly equal at the same porosity. In the case of the bending test, the moment of inertia of the area was a linear function of porosity. Young's modulus measured by the bending test, which was corrected by use of the above relation, was equal to that by other method. Young's modulus measured by the bending test was 0.7-0.8 times of Young's modulus measured by the tensile test.Young's modulus (E), tensile strength (Ts) and proof stress (Ps) against porosity (P) are expressed as E=(E0-KE⋅P) (1-P), Ts=(Tso-KTs⋅P)(1-P) and Ps=(Pso-Kps⋅P)(1-P), respectively. Here, E0, Tso and Pso are Young's modulus, tensile strength and proof stress at P=0, and KE, KTS and KPS are the experimental coefficients of each relation. Moreover, we found that the relationships among Young's modulus, tensile strength and proof stress are in positive correlation.

Evaluation on effect of printing process parameter through Taguchi approach on mechanical properties of 3D printed PLA specimens using FDM at constant printing temperature

The apparent increase of the Young's modulus in thin cement layers

Effect of process parameters on the mechanical performance of FDM printed carbon fiber reinforced PETG

This research focuses on optimising process parameters for fabricating 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) composites reinforced with 10% carbon fibre (CF) to improve their mechanical properties and surface morphology for engineering applications. The investigation considered four key process parameters – printing speed, layer thickness, raster angle and infill pattern – analysed through the Taguchi method and Grey Relational Analysis (GRA). A design of experiments (DOE) approach using an L27 orthogonal array was used to identify the best combination of parameters. Mechanical tests, including tensile, compressive, flexural, impact and hardness evaluations, along with surface roughness measurements, were conducted according to ASTM standards. The results showed significant enhancements in tensile, flexural, and compressive strength, as well as Shore D hardness, for 10% CF-ABS composites compared to pure ABS. The optimised parameters reduced surface roughness from 30 to 25 µm and increased tensile strength from 56 to 61 MPa. Similarly, flexural strength increased from 83 to 86 MPa, compressive strength improved from 53 to 57 MPa, and impact strength increased from 18 to 21 J. Shore D hardness also improved, rising from 68 to 75. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) of the fracture surfaces revealed mechanisms such as fibre pull-out, delamination and fibrillation, indicating improved fibre-matrix bonding. Among the process parameters, pattern type and layer thickness were found to be critical in enhancing mechanical performance. The Gyroid infill pattern exhibited the best overall results. This study provides valuable insights into optimising Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printing parameters for producing high-performance composite components, encouraging their wider use in general engineering sectors.

PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF SALTSTONE PRODUCED USING SWPF SIMULANTS

This research investigates the influence of key Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) process parameters on the tensile properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA). Dog-bone specimens, compliant with ISO 527-2, were printed in three distinct build orientations and at two extrusion temperatures. Uniaxial tensile tests were performed to determine the Ultimate Tensile Strength, Elongation at Break, and Young's Modulus. The results demonstrate the significant anisotropic mechanical behaviour of FFF-printed PLA, with vertically oriented specimens exhibiting the highest strength. A critical analysis of methodologies for determining material stiffness was also conducted, comparing the standard ISO 527 Young's Modulus against a Linear Regression approach and a novel Dynamically calculated Young's Modulus method that identifies the most stable elastic region. Findings reveal that the calculation method significantly impacts the resulting Young's Modulus, with the standard chord method overestimating stiffness by up to 14% compared to the more robust data-driven approaches. This study underscores the critical importance of both process parameter control and the selection of an appropriate analysis methodology for the accurate mechanical characterization of additively manufactured components for engineering applications. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), Polylactic Acid (PLA), Young's Modulus, Anisotropy, Tensile Testing, ISO 527.

This research investigates the influence of key Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) process parameters on the tensile properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA). Dog-bone specimens, compliant with ISO 527-2, were printed in three distinct build orientations and at two extrusion temperatures. Uniaxial tensile tests were performed to determine the Ultimate Tensile Strength, Elongation at Break, and Young's Modulus. The results demonstrate the significant anisotropic mechanical behaviour of FFF-printed PLA, with vertically oriented specimens exhibiting the highest strength. A critical analysis of methodologies for determining material stiffness was also conducted, comparing the standard ISO 527 Young's Modulus against a Linear Regression approach and a novel Dynamically calculated Young's Modulus method that identifies the most stable elastic region. Findings reveal that the calculation method significantly impacts the resulting Young's Modulus, with the standard chord method overestimating stiffness by up to 14% compared to the more robust data-driven approaches. This study underscores the critical importance of both process parameter control and the selection of an appropriate analysis methodology for the accurate mechanical characterization of additively manufactured components for engineering applications. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), Polylactic Acid (PLA), Young's Modulus, Anisotropy, Tensile Testing, ISO 527