Investigating No SNARC: Do Reading Habits Provide Insight into the SNARC Patterns of Turkish Sample?

Recently, the development of human numerical ability has attracted more and more attention, and a great deal of advance of number processing-specific phenomena has been reported, one of which is the Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes effect (SNARC effect). Instinctively, number processing is a numerical symbolic operation without additional information. But, in fact, a close relationship between number and space has been found, which demonstrates a dependency of number processing on the spatial character of objects. Some researchers explained that numbers are represented along a horizontally "mental number line", on which small numbers are on the left of the line, and large numbers are on the right. However, since the SNARC effect was also found on the vertical direction, someone proposed that the spatial representation of numbers is a number map rather than a number line. Furthermore, the SNARC effect was likewise discovered when doing the shallow processing of number (Fischer, 2001; Shen et al., 2006). Besides, previous studies (e.g., Wood Willmes, 2005) have found the SNARC effect in many other numerical symbols, such as auditory number words, visual Arabic numeral, and visual number words. However, the SNARC effect of non-symbolic number which is one of the numerical formats has not been studied so far. Although researchers have paid attention to the relationship between the eye movement and cognition in recent 20 years, we still need more eye movement researches in number processing. The present study explored the influence of processing levels on the SNARC effect of dot matrixes by the technique of eye movement. The present study includes two within-subjects design experiments, to study the SNARC effect on the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. Experiment 1 investigated the SNARC effect of non-symbolic number, in which participants were asked to response to the detective stimuli (on the left or right) following the irrelevant stimuli (dot matrix) with two different processing levels (deep processing condition and shallow processing condition). The eye movement response time was recorded respectively for deep processing (the comparison task) and shallow processing (the dice scanning task) to examine whether the SNARC effect appeared or not. The results showed that SNARC effects appeared in both conditions of horizontal dimension, further analysis indicated that the strength of SNARC effects from both processing levels was similar. In Experiment 2, the detective stimuli were represented in vertical dimension, and the tasks were the same to those in experiment 1. We recorded eye movement time for both upward and downward responses. The result showed us that there was no SNARC effect in both conditions. In conclusion, the present study suggests that the SNARC effect of dot matrix was weaker than that of Arabic number, and the processing level almost had no impact on the SNARC of dot number dueling to the interaction of the characteristic of the dice and the direction, while the role of dimension was crucial.

Spatial-Numerical Associations (SNAs) reflect the cognitive link between numerical magnitude and spatial orientation. While the SNARC effect, faster-left responses for small numbers and right responses for large ones, is robust in Western populations, findings from Turkish samples have been inconsistent. This study investigated whether methodological factors, including statistical power, sensitivity of measurement, and task setup, contribute to these inconsistencies. Using high-powered, lab-based parity judgment (PJ) and magnitude classification tasks, which are standard task setups when investigating the SNARC effect, as well as a novel Go/No-go (GNG) paradigm with lateralized stimuli and a central response, we examined directional SNAs in Turkish participants. Results revealed a weak reverse SNARC effect in the standard PJ task and a weak left-to-right SNA in the GNG PJ task, but no reliable group-level effects in magnitude tasks. Task setup significantly influenced directional SNA patterns, with opposite effects observed between standard and GNG PJ tasks. These findings suggest that SNAs are context-dependent, with different task setups activating distinct directional SNAs. This highlights the critical importance of methodological design when investigating SNAs.

The mental representation of numbers inherently involves a spatial organization, often positioning smaller numbers to the left and larger numbers to the right. The SNARC effect, characterized by faster responses to small numbers using the left hand and vice versa for large numbers, is typically attributed to this left-to-right oriented mental number line (MNL). However, the direction of the SNARC effect seems to rely on reading direction, with most research exploring these mechanisms conducted within left-to-right reading cultures where the SNARC effect is prevalent. This study takes advantage of a sample from a left-to-right reading culture that does not exhibit the SNARC effect, allowing us to isolate and elucidate the stand-alone effects of recent experiences on SNARC. Therefore, the current study aims to investigate how MNL-compatible and MNL-incompatible practices induce an effect within a sample lacking the SNARC effect. To accomplish this, we reinvited the individuals from the sample which had previously shown no SNARC, and retested those who agreed to take part in the current study after an MNL-compatible or MNL-incompatible practice manipulation. The findings revealed an absence of the SNARC effect with MNL-compatible practices. Conversely, MNL-incompatible practices yielded a reverse SNARC effect. These results prompt a discussion on SNARC mechanisms within the framework of practice effects.

This study investigates the SNARC effect in Turkish participants using a magnitude classification task to examine the roles of semantic influences and cultural experiences. While prior research has shown the absence of the SNARC effect in a parity judgment among Turkish participants who read from left to right, our findings further confirm its absence in a magnitude classification task, even when semantic demands are minimised. Instead, a robust distance effect was observed, pointing out the involvement of spatial number processing in the task. These findings are discussed in the context of possible multiple spatial mappings, shaped by Turkey’s unique cultural and historical background, which may hinder the development of a dominant spatial-numerical association. Future research incorporating explicit spatial primes linked to various cultural experiences could clarify the mechanisms underlying the variability of SNARC effects and offer valuable insights into the relationship between cultural history and cognitive processes.

The SNARC effect occurs in the response-selection stage

When participants are asked to judge the parity of presented digits,smaller numbers are associated with faster left-hand responses,and larger numbers with faster right-hand responses.This association of numbers with space is called as the Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes(the SNARC effect).The effect has been examined and confirmed in an ever growing literature in cognitive psychology.Some researchers argue that the origin of SNARC can be attributed to the existence of a left-to-right oriented mental number line.Some others favor that a dual-route cognitive model can account for the SNARC effect.Both accounts above focus on the cognitive processing of the SNARC effect.However,few studies have investigated the impact of body form and social environment on the SNARC effect.In this study,the SNARC effect was further explored from the perspective of Embodied Cognition.According to Embodied Cognition,the mind,brain,body and environment are organized into an integrative system because the brain is embedded in the body and the body is embedded in the environment.Therefore,the states of body and its environment play a great role in cognitive processes.With 127 college students and three experimental tasks including a parity decision task,a Go/No-go task and a joint Go/No-go task,the present study aimed to explore the impact of body form and social environment on the SNARC effect.Participants were asked to respond to both even and odd numbers in Experiment 1,which served as a baseline for the following experiments.Consistent with previous studies,the SNARC effect was observed in this experiment.In Experiment 2,subjects were administered the Go/No-go task and required to respond to only one mode of parity with only one response key.It was found that the SNARC effect disappeared.We speculated that the disappearance of the SNARC effect could be due to that a point of body instead of a line was represented.It seemed that the physical form could affect the SNARC effect.In Experiment 3,two participants performed complementary actions,termed the joint Go/No-go task,with one responding to odd and the other to even.According to the consistency between sitting sides and hands,four conditions were designed.In the condition 1,the sitting sides and hands were completely consistent:The persons on the left responded with their left hands while those on the right responded with their right hands.In the condition 2,the sitting sides and hands were completely opposite:The left participants responded with their right hands while the right ones responded with their left hands.In the condition 3 and 4,the sitting sides and hands were partly consistent.Specifically,both left and right participants responded with their left hands in the condition 3 while both left and right participants responded with their right hands in the condition 4.Interestingly,the SNARC effect appeared only in the condition 1,which might be attributed to the role of human mirror neuron that could map the observation of external action on internal motor representation.In the joint Go/No-go task,actions of one person as well as actions of his/her cooperator were likely to be represented in the person,leading to the appearance of the SNARC effect.However,the SNARC effect did not appear in the other three conditions,suggesting that the effect only appeared when the sitting side was consistent with the hand.The results of Experiment 3 indicated that the SNARC effect could be affected by social environment and physical form.

Many studies have identified two types of spatial congruency effects in number parity judgment tasks: the SNARC effect (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes), related to numerical magnitude, and the MARC effect (Linguistic Markedness Association of Response Codes), associated with parity. Although previous work has found that these effects interact, the mechanisms underlying the interaction are unclear. Previous studies have investigated the effect of linguistic connections on the activation of the SNARC and MARC effects in right-to-left readers by manipulating the time interval between tasks. We propose that a cognitive control mechanism mediates this phenomenon, with the level of cognitive conflict induced by the MARC effect under varying conditions being a critical factor in influencing spatial-numerical associations. We first performed four behavioral experiments manipulating time intervals between parity-to-response mappings. The results demonstrate that interactions between the SNARC and MARC effects are not sensitive to changes in time intervals but are primarily influenced by the congruency between the two effects. We then performed an event related potentials study. The response patterns observed in the P300 component support the hypothesis that cognitive conflict levels influence spatial-numerical associations. In conclusion, this study highlights the essential role of cognitive control in modulating the conflict between the SNARC and MARC effects, providing a new theoretical perspective on the dynamic characteristics of spatial-numerical associations.

Spatial-Numerical Associations (SNAs) refer to the demonstrations of spatial processing of numbers. The Mental Number Line (MNL) is a representation model describing numbers as aligning left-to-right (LR) and was suggested to account for directional biases in participants’ responses during numerical tasks. One common behavioral demonstration of this is the Spatial-Numerical Associations of Response Codes (SNARC) effect, which describes faster left-/right-hand responses to smaller/larger numbers, respectively. The MNL, and, consequently, directional SNAs, show variabilities across different cultures. Reading direction is considered to be the main factor in explaining these differences. In line with this, individuals with right-to-left (RL) reading habits show a weaker or even reverse SNARC effect. In the present study, we investigated whether SNAs are influenced not only by reading direction, but also by cultural directional preferences such as drawing lines, arranging objects, imagining objects (i.e., rightward or leftward facing), or representing events in time (i.e., mentally representing the past/future on the left/right, respectively). To test this hypothesis, we measured the cultural directional preferences and the SNARC effect across three cultures in an online setup; German, Turkish, and Iranian. LR preferences in the Cultural Directional Preferences Questionnaire were most prominent in German participants, intermediate in Turkish participants, and least prominent in Iranian participants. In line with this, the LR SNARC effect was strongest in German, intermediate in Turkish, and weakest (but not RL) in Iranian culture. These findings suggest that cultural directional preferences are involved in the emergence of adult SNAs in addition to the reading direction.

Spatial-Numerical Associations (SNAs) refer to the demonstrations of spatial processing of numbers. The Mental Number Line (MNL) is a representation model describing numbers as aligning left-to-right (LR) and was suggested to account for directional biases in participants’ responses during numerical tasks. One common behavioral demonstration of this is the Spatial-Numerical Associations of Response Codes (SNARC) effect, which describes faster left/right-hand responses to smaller/larger numbers, respectively. The MNL, and, consequently, directional SNAs, show variabilities across different cultures. Reading direction is considered to be the main factor in explaining these differences. In line with this, individuals with right-to-left (RL) reading habits show a weaker or even reverse SNARC effect. In the present study, we investigated whether SNAs are influenced not only by reading direction, but also by cultural directional preferences such as drawing lines, arranging objects, imagining objects (i.e., rightward or leftward facing), or representing events in time (i.e., mentally representing the past and the future on the left or right). To test this hypothesis, we measured the cultural directional preferences and the SNARC effect across three cultures in an online setup; German, Turkish, and Iranian. LR preferences in the Cultural Directional Preferences Questionnaire were most prominent in German participants, intermediate in Turkish participants, and least prominent in Iranian participants. In line with this, the LR SNARC effect was strongest in German, intermediate in Turkish, and weakest (but not RL) in Iranian culture. These findings suggest that cultural directional preferences are involved in the emergence of adult SNAs in addition to the reading direction.

The SNARC effect does not imply a mental number line

The humans process the numbers in a similar way to animals. There are countless studies in which similar performance between animals and humans (adults and/or children) are reported. Three models have been developed to explain the cognitive mechanisms underlying the number processing. The triple-code model (Dehaene, 1992) posits an mental number line as preferred way to represent magnitude. The mental number line has three particular effects: the distance, the magnitude and the SNARC effects. The SNARC effect shows a spatial association between number and space representations. In other words, the small numbers are related to left space while large numbers are related to right space. Recently a vertical SNARC effect has been found (Ito & Hatta, 2004; Schwarz & Keus, 2004), reflecting a space-related bottom-to-up representation of numbers. The magnitude representations horizontally and vertically could influence the subject performance in explicit and implicit digit tasks. The goal of this research project aimed to investigate the spatial components of number representation using different experimental designs and tasks. The experiment 1 focused on horizontal and vertical number representations in a within- and between-subjects designs in a parity and magnitude comparative tasks, presenting positive or negative Arabic digits (1-9 without 5). The experiment 1A replied the SNARC and distance effects in both spatial arrangements. The experiment 1B showed an horizontal reversed SNARC effect in both tasks while a vertical reversed SNARC effect was found only in comparative task. In the experiment 1C two groups of subjects performed both tasks in two different instruction-responding hand assignments with positive numbers. The results did not show any significant differences between two assignments, even if the vertical number line seemed to be more flexible respect to horizontal one. On the whole the experiment 1 seemed to demonstrate a contextual (i.e. task set) influences of the nature of the SNARC effect. The experiment 2 focused on the effect of horizontal and vertical number representations on spatial biases in a paper-and-pencil bisecting tasks. In the experiment 2A the participants were requested to bisect physical and number (2 or 9) lines horizontally and vertically. The findings demonstrated that digit 9 strings tended to generate a more rightward bias comparing with digit 2 strings horizontally. However in vertical condition the digit 2 strings generated a more upperward bias respect to digit 9 strings, suggesting a top-to-bottom number line. In the experiment 2B the participants were asked to bisect lines flanked by numbers (i.e. 1 or 7) in four spatial arrangements: horizontal, vertical, right-diagonal and left-diagonal lines. Four number conditions were created according to congruent or incongruent number line representation: 1-1, 1-7, 7-1 and 7-7. The main results showed a more reliable rightward bias in horizontal congruent condition (1-7) respect to incongruent condition (7-1). Vertically the incongruent condition (1-7) determined a significant bias towards bottom side of line respect to congruent condition (7-1). The experiment 2 suggested a more rigid horizontal number line while in vertical condition the number representation could be more flexible. In the experiment 3 we adopted the materials of experiment 2B in order to find a number line effect on temporal (motor) performance. The participants were presented horizontal, vertical, rightdiagonal and left-diagonal lines flanked by the same digits (i.e. 1-1 or 7-7) or by different digits (i.e. 1-7 or 7-1). The digits were spatially congruent or incongruent with their respective hypothesized mental representations. Participants were instructed to touch the lines either close to the large digit, or close to the small digit, or to bisected the lines. Number processing influenced movement execution more than movement planning. Number congruency influenced spatial biases mostly along the horizontal but also along the vertical dimension. These results support a two-dimensional magnitude representation. Finally, the experiment 4 addressed the visuo-spatial manipulation of number representations for accessing and retrieval arithmetic facts. The participants were requested to perform a number-matching and an addition verification tasks. The findings showed an interference effect between sum-nodes and neutral-nodes only with an horizontal presentation of digit-cues, in number-matching tasks. In the addition verification task, the performance was similar for horizontal and vertical presentations of arithmetic problems. In conclusion the data seemed to show an automatic activation of horizontal number line also used to retrieval arithmetic facts. The horizontal number line seemed to be more rigid and the preferred way to order number from left-to-right. A possible explanation could be the left-to-right direction for reading and writing. The vertical number line seemed to be more flexible and more dependent from the tasks, reflecting perhaps several example in the environment representing numbers either from bottom-to-top or from top-to-bottom. However the bottom-to-top number line seemed to be activated by explicit task demands.

Access to mental representations of smaller vs. larger number symbols is associated with leftward vs. rightward spatial locations, as represented on a number line. The well-replicated SNARC effect (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes) reveals that simple decisions about small numbers are facilitated when stimuli are presented on the left, and large numbers facilitated when on the right. We present novel evidence that the size of the SNARC effect is relatively stable within individuals over time. This enables us to take an individual differences approach to investigate how the SNARC effect is modulated by spatial and numerical cognition. Are number-space associations linked to spatial operations, such that those who have greater facility in spatial computations show the stronger SNARC effects, or are they linked to number semantics, such that those showing stronger influence of magnitude associations on number symbol decisions show stronger SNARC effects? Our results indicate a significant correlation between the SNARC effect and a 2D mental rotation task, suggesting that spatial operations are at play in the expression of this effect. We also uncover a significant correlation between the SNARC effect and the distance effect, suggesting that the SNARC is also related to access to number semantics. A multiple regression analysis reveals that the relative contributions of spatial cognition and distance effects represent significant, yet distinct, contributions in explaining variation in the size of the SNARC effect from one individual to the next. Overall, these results shed new light on how the spatial-numerical associations of response codes are influenced by both number semantics and spatial operations.

Dehaene, Bossini, and Giraux (1993) showed that when participants make parity judgments, responses to numerically small numbers are made faster with the left hand, whereas responses to large numbers are made faster with the right hand (the SNARC [spatial-numerical association of response codes] effect). According to one view, the SNARC effect arises at an early processing stage due to (in)congruencies between the digit's side of presentation and its representation on the mental number line, independently of response effector(s). Alternatively, the SNARC effect might arise at a later response-related stage due to (in)congruencies between the digit's representation on the mental number line and the side of response, independently of the side of presentation. The results of three experiments, using central and lateralized stimuli, and vocal and manual responses, clearly support the view that the SNARC effect arises at a relatively late response-related stage, without substantive contributions from earlier processing stages.

The spatial numerical association of response codes effect, referred to as the SNARC effect, reveals that small numbers elicit faster left than right responses, and conversely, large numbers elicit faster right responses. Here, we explored the development of this number-space association by assessing how 7-, 9-, 11-year-olds, and adults differed in spatial orienting of attention on Posner’ paradigm. Compared with the previous research, we examined how the cues would affect the level and strength of the SNARC effect in children under the different attentional conditions. Subjects made parity decisions for endogenous attention (Experiment 1) and exogenous attention (Experiment 2). The results showed that adults displayed the SNARC effect in both experiments, relatively speaking, 7- to 11-year-old Chinese children’s ability of spatial numerical association progressed gradually. With endogenous attention, the SNARC effect appeared in all age groups except for 7-year-olds for invalid cues. Compared with the endogenous attention condition, the SNARC effect was more significantly affected by cues in the exogenous attention condition. This result might be owing to the fact that the SNARC effect was not demonstrated in 7-year-olds with either valid or invalid cues. Our results suggest that the differences in the spatial orienting of attention are based on the cognitive load associated with processing number information and that this process can be affected by cues. Further, there may be cross-cultural influences on the SNARC effect, as early family training may explain the results seen in this sample of Chinese 7-year-olds. Thus, reaction times decreased with increasing age in the parity judgment task, and reaction times for valid cues were faster than for invalid cues regardless of the age group in both experiments. The SNARC effect was only present for 7-year-olds for valid cues, for endogenous attention.

Event Abstract Back to Event The nature of spatial coding of ordinal information in working memory Veronique Ginsburg1*, Jean-Philippe Van Dijck2, Paola Previtali3, Wim Fias2 and Wim Gevers1 1 Université Libre de Bruxelles, Faculté des Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation, Belgium 2 Universiteit Gent, Department of Experimental Psychology, Belgium 3 Department of Psychology, Italy Generally, subjects respond faster to relatively small numbers with the left hand side and to relatively large numbers with the right hand side. This observation is called the SNARC effect. Recent data indicate that numbers are not automatically related to space but rather that numbers-space associations are created during task execution. This suggests a determinant implication of working memory. In a recent study of Van Dijck and Fias (2011), participants had to memorise a sequence of serially presented numbers. In a second phase they had to perform a parity judgment task only on numbers belonging to the working memory load. An association was observed between the ordinal position and response side, called the ordinal position effect (i.e. early position in the memorized sequence was responded faster with the left hand side and late position with the right hand side). Interestingly, no SNARC effect occurred: Numbers are coded for their ordinal position in working memory rather than for their magnitude. In the present study, we adapted the procedure of Van Dijck and Fias (2011) to investigate whether the passive (items just maintained in working memory) vs. active (items maintained and processed) state of numbers in working memory influences the SNARC effect and the ordinal position effect. As expected, if numbers are actively maintained in working memory, lateralized responses are linked to the ordinal position of numbers (i.e., the ordinal position effect) and not to magnitude information. On the contrary, the ordinal position effect disappears and we observe a SNARC effect if the memorized sequence is in a passive state. Additionally, these results are observed regardless of whether magnitude information is relevant to the task (i.e., magnitude comparison vs. parity judgment). Acknowledgements FNRS References van Dijck, J.-P., & Fias, W. (2011). A working memory account for spatial numerical associations. Cognition, 119, 114–119. Keywords: numbers, space, working memory, SNARC effect, ordinal position Conference: Belgian Brain Council, Liège, Belgium, 27 Oct - 27 Oct, 2012. Presentation Type: Poster Presentation Topic: Higher Brain Functions in health and disease: cognition and memory Citation: Ginsburg V, Van Dijck J, Previtali P, Fias W and Gevers W (2012). The nature of spatial coding of ordinal information in working memory. Conference Abstract: Belgian Brain Council. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnhum.2012.210.00031 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 10 Sep 2012; Published Online: 12 Sep 2012. * Correspondence: Miss. Veronique Ginsburg, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Faculté des Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation, Brussels, Belgium, veginsbu@ulb.ac.be Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Veronique Ginsburg Jean-Philippe Van Dijck Paola Previtali Wim Fias Wim Gevers Google Veronique Ginsburg Jean-Philippe Van Dijck Paola Previtali Wim Fias Wim Gevers Google Scholar Veronique Ginsburg Jean-Philippe Van Dijck Paola Previtali Wim Fias Wim Gevers PubMed Veronique Ginsburg Jean-Philippe Van Dijck Paola Previtali Wim Fias Wim Gevers Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.