Interventions for children with developmental coordination disorder: A scoping review.

To summarize current evidence for early identification and motor-based intervention for children aged 5 years and younger of age with/at risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Using scoping review methodology, we independently screened over 11 000 articles and selected those that met inclusion criteria. Of the 103 included articles, 78 articles were related to early identification and are summarized in a companion article. Twenty-two articles focused on early intervention, with an additional three articles covering both early identification and intervention. Most intervention studies were at a low level of evidence, but provide encouraging evidence that early intervention is beneficial for young children with/at risk of DCD. Direct intervention can be provided to whole classes, small groups, or individuals according to a tiers of service delivery model. Educating and building the capacity of parents and early childhood educators are also key elements of early intervention. Evidence for early intervention for children with/at risk of DCD is emerging with promising results. Further studies are needed to determine best practice for early intervention and whether intervening early can prevent the negative developmental trajectory and secondary psychosocial consequences associated with DCD.

Infants born preterm are at risk of cerebral palsy (CP) and motor or cognitive developmental delay. For clinicians, it is essential to know the relative predictive accuracy of the most commonly used neuroimaging and neurophysiological tests for the early prediction of adverse neurodevelopmental outcome. The aim of this study was to compare the accuracy of these tests in survivors of a population of infants born very preterm. A retrospective cohort study was performed in 163 children born before 32 weeks gestational age. We compared the accuracy in predicting adverse neurodevelopmental outcome at the age of 2 years 6 months of early and late cranial ultrasound (CUS), magnetic resonance imaging, somatosensory evoked potentials after stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve, and electroencephalography by calculating positive and negative likelihood ratios. An abnormal early CUS is the best predictor of the presence of CP (positive likelihood ratio 6.09), motor developmental delay (positive likelihood ratio 3.11), and cognitive developmental delay (positive likelihood ratio 5.66). Overall, negative likelihood ratios were poor, ranging between 0.49 and 0.98, meaning that a normal test result had only minimal influence on the probability of adverse neurological outcome. None of the diagnostic tests had a good performance in predicting future neurodevelopmental problems in infants born preterm. A normal test result provided very little clinically useful information. An abnormal early cranial ultrasound (positive test result) is the best predictor of adverse neurodevelopmental outcome. All negative results have poor predictive value of future neurodevelopmental problems.

Transfer of motor and strategy learning in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): A scoping review.

Introduction: Motor imagery training (MIT) has gained attention as an occupational therapy tool for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Although MIT has shown some effectiveness in children with DCD, intervention methods for DCD can still be improved. Further, occupational therapists should update their knowledge of motor imagery (MI) and MIT for children with DCD and understand their application. Objective: The objective of this study is to survey the existing evidence on MI and MIT in children with DCD and comprehensively identify what is known and the problems that have been identified. Methods: We used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Review and American Occupational Therapy Association guidelines for data collection and quality assessment. We searched for articles that included the words "developmental coordination disorder" and "motor imagery, motor imagery training (mental practice)." We searched the PubMed, Scopus, Medline, and the Cochrane Library databases; the search end date was March 12, 2024. Findings: In total, 30 articles, including seven clinical studies and 23 fundamental studies, were eligible for this review. We surveyed (1) methods for assessing MI ability or clarity in children with DCD, (2) what is known about MI in children with DCD, and (3) the methodology of MIT for children with DCD. Conclusion: Children with DCD have reduced MI ability compared to that had by typically developing children. Thus, MIT is recommended as a means of reducing the behavioral consequences of internal modeling deficits in children with DCD. On the other hand, information on the methodology used in MIT for children with DCD is inadequate, and no clear intervention measures have been proposed. In the future, it is important to clarify the amount of load when performing MIT and clarify the combination with other programs through more advanced research methods.

A large proportion of adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are physically inactive. Physical literacy has been described as an important determinant in promoting health behaviours. The potential of exergames to improve physical literacy and activity has been recognized in typically developing children. The aim of the present scoping review was to identify and map the available evidence of this potential for adolescents with DCD. A scoping review was performed via a literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, ERIC and CINHAIL. From 2860 search records, six studies (two studies in DCD and four studies in cerebral palsy [CP]) assessed physical activity, 12 studies discussed exergame features and 16 studies assessed physical literacy domains. In DCD, one study showed positive effects of exergaming on physical activity and the other failed to show any significant effects of exergaming. In CP, all four studies demonstrated positive effects of exergaming on energy expenditure and daily physical activity. Furthermore, positive effects of exergames on the different physical literacy domains were shown, namely motor competence, self-concept and affect, motivation and social/experiential. Finally, exergame features including multiplayer modes, realism, game rewards, challenges and enjoyment were shown to have a significant effect on motivating and encouraging adolescents to exert more effort while playing. Based on the positive effects of exergaming on physical activity in other populations, more in-depth research in adolescents with DCD is warranted such that the decline in physical activity behaviour that is present in individuals with DCD can be counteracted. Physical literacy should be regarded as an important determinant in this regard.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are common neurodevelopmental disorders that often co-occur and have similar secondary symptoms. While DCD and ADHD are considered separate conditions, their commonalities create challenges for differential diagnosis and support. Therefore, this preregistered broad-spanning scoping review includes systematic literature searches to summarize all available studies on DCD and/or ADHD. Sixty-eight articles were classified into the following categories: (a) neuroimaging; (b) genetic and twin studies; (c) methylphenidate; (d) cognition; (e) motor skills; (f) physical activity and physical therapy; (g) perception, sensory processing, and visuomotor integration; (h) psychosocial factors and well-being; and (i) symptom presence and management. Most studies included samples under 18 years old, and almost no studies were replicated. Common themes supported that individuals with co-occurring DCD and ADHD have more difficulties than those with one condition. While we found numerous neural and functional overlaps between DCD and ADHD, several features consistently differentiated the conditions, for example, sensorimotor difficulties in DCD. Thus, we conclude that DCD and ADHD are similar conditions with a few differential features; however, co-occurring DCD + ADHD has unique burdens not observed in either condition alone. Extensive replication is needed to determine the precursors, stability, and changeability of DCD and/or ADHD.

Introduction: This study was performed to compare the implicit motor sequence learning in children with and without developmental coordination disorder. Materials and Methods: To compare the implicit motor learning, serial reaction time task (SRT) was designed and used in C ++ programming environment. In this study, 24 participated children were divided into two equal groups of with and without developmental coordination disorder; they practiced 10 blocks of SRT task during the two days with an interval of 24 hours. At the beginning of the test, no explanation was given to learners about the appearance of stimuli and motor learning took place implicitly. Data were analyzed using independent-t and ANOVA tests. Results: There was no significant difference between the two groups of children with and without developmental coordination disorder in speed (P = 0.235) and precision (P = 0.072) components. However, comparing the between subjects effects during blocks of motor sequence acquisition phase (indicating) significant differences between children with and without developmental disorder in both speed and accuracy variable (P > 0.001). Conclusion: Although children with developmental coordination disorder have difficulties in acquisition and learning of everyday motor skills, their implicit motor sequence is intact. Therefore, in the process of teaching and rehabilitation of children with developmental coordination disorder, we can take advantage from implicit learning.

A vast majority of individuals with autism spectrum disorder experience impairments in motor skills. Those are often labelled as additional developmental coordination disorder despite the lack of studies comparing both disorders. Consequently, motor skills rehabilitation programmes in autism are often not specific but rather consist in standard programmes for developmental coordination disorder. Here, we compared motor performance in three groups of children: a control group, an autism spectrum disorder group and a developmental coordination disorder group. Despite similar level of motor skills evaluated by the standard movement assessment battery for children, in a Reach-to-Displace Task, children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder showed specific motor control deficits. Children with autism spectrum disorder failed to anticipate the object properties, but could correct their movement as well as typically developing children. In contrast, children with developmental coordination disorder were atypically slow, but showed a spared anticipation. Our study has important clinical implications as motor skills rehabilitations are crucial to both populations. Specifically, our findings suggest that individuals with autism spectrum disorder would benefit from therapies aiming at improving their anticipation, maybe through the support of their preserved representations and use of sensory information. Conversely, individuals with developmental coordination disorder would benefit from a focus on the use of sensory information in a timely fashion.

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Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a prevalent health condition that is frequently unrecognized despite the substantial evidence that has accumulated regarding how it affects children's health, education and skills. Most literature focuses on measurement of impairment and description of intervention approaches for individual children; little is known about the principles that should guide best practice and service delivery for children with DCD as a population. The purpose of this study was to identify these principles. A scoping review was used to 'map' the information available to inform intervention and service delivery. Scholarly and grey literature written in English was identified in six databases, using a combination of keywords (e.g. guidelines, management, models and DCD); a 'snow-balling' technique was also used in Canada and the UK to access clinical protocols used in publicly funded health care systems. Over 500 documents were screened: 31 met inclusion criteria as they outlined practice principles for children with DCD as a population. Data regarding best practices were independently extracted by two reviewers and then compared with achieve consistency and consensus. Two over-arching themes emerged, with five principles: (1) Organizing services to efficiently meet the comprehensive needs of children (e.g. Increasing awareness of DCD and coordination; Implementing clearly defined pathways; Using a graduated/staged approach); (2) Working collaboratively to offer evidence-based services (e.g. Integration of child and family views; Evidence-based interventions fostering function, participation and prevention). Numerous documents support each of the principles, reflecting agreement across studies about recommended organization of services. While these principles may apply to many populations of children with disabilities, this review highlights how essential these principles are in DCD. Researchers, managers, clinicians, community partners and families are encouraged to work together in designing, implementing and evaluating interventions that reflect these principles.

HighlightsWhat are the main findings?AI applications in DCD research are mainly focused on screening and assessment, with very limited attention being given to intervention.Most studies rely on supervised machine learning, while advanced approaches such as multimodal systems or generative AI are essentially absent.What are the implications of the main findings?AI currently supports early identification and motor assessment in DCD but is not yet widely used to enhance therapeutic intervention.Future research should prioritize clinically integrated, OT- and PT-centered AI tools to support personalized intervention and functional outcomes to populations with DCD.Background: Developmental coordination Disorder (DCD) is a prevalent and persistent neurodevelopmental condition characterized by motor learning difficulties that significantly affect daily functioning and participation. Despite growing interest in artificial intelligence (AI) applications within healthcare, the extent and nature of AI use in the evaluation and intervention of DCD remain unclear. Objective: This scoping review aimed to systematically map the existing literature on the use of AI and AI-assisted approaches in the evaluation, screening, monitoring, and intervention of DCD, and to identify current trends, methodological characteristics, and gaps in the evidence base. Methods: A scoping review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines and was registered on the Open Science Framework. Systematic searches were performed in Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore, supplemented by snowballing. Peer-reviewed studies applying AI methods to DCD-relevant populations were included. Data was extracted and charted to summarize study designs, populations, AI methods, data modalities, clinical purposes, outcomes, and reported limitations. Results: Seven studies published between 2021 and 2025 met the inclusion criteria following a literature search covering the period from January 2010 to 2025. One study listed as 2026 was included based on its early access online publication in 2025. Most studies focused on AI applications for assessment, screening, and classification, using supervised machine learning or deep learning models applied to movement-based data, wearable sensors, video recordings, neurophysiological signals, or electronic health records. Only one randomized controlled trial evaluated an AI-assisted intervention. The evidence base was dominated by early-phase development and validation studies, with limited external validation, heterogeneous diagnostic definitions, and scarce intervention-focused research. Conclusions: Current AI research in DCD is primarily centered on evaluation and early identification, with comparatively limited evidence supporting AI-assisted intervention or rehabilitation. While existing findings suggest that AI has the potential to enhance objectivity and sensitivity in DCD assessment, significant gaps remain in clinical translation, intervention development, and implementation. Future research should prioritize theory-informed, clinician-centered AI applications, including adaptive intervention systems and decision-support tools, to better support occupational therapy and physiotherapy practice in DCD care.

This study investigates the motor performance and activities of daily living (ADL) in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The research evaluates the impact of an 8-week physiotherapy intervention program, using statistical analysis and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test for Motor Proficiency (BOTMP). Results indicate significant improvements in fine and gross motor skills, demonstrating the effectiveness of structured physiotherapy programs in children with DCD. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a motor skills disorder that affects children’s ability to perform daily activities. This study investigates the impact of structured physiotherapy interventions on motor performance and activities of daily living (ADL) in children with DCD. A sample of 26 children (aged 7-13 years) was assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test for Motor Proficiency (BOTMP). The study evaluated the effectiveness of an eight-week physiotherapy intervention, focusing on improvements in fine and gross motor skills. Results showed significant enhancement in motor performance, with long-term retention of benefits. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating physiotherapy into routine care for children with DCD. bilities have been identified as developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Approximately 5-8 percent of students enrolled in regular schools have DCD; the number of affected males is double that of affected girls. DCD is connected to instructive, social, and intense subject matters that regularly last past puberty and frequently occurs alongside other developmental disorders like ADHD, ADD, severe learning disabilities, and reading disabilities. Children with developmental delays do not spontaneously progress in motor skills or outgrow them. Objectives of the study: To assess the impact of a gathering physiotherapy program that endured two months on the coordinated movements of youngsters with Down syndrome at Military School, Meerut. To find out how the intervention impacted various parts of motor function. METHOD: The study's sample size of 26 children—18 males and 8 females—represents a prevalence ratio of around 2:1,sample were based on the inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria for the study. Using reliable instrument BOTMP , GMC, FMC, BC, or SF composite. RESULT: The data was analyse using The Bruininski- Oseretsky Test For Motor Proficiency (BOTMP), The three appraisal series (pre-treatment, post-treatment, two month of rest post-treatment) were utilize to accompanying measure: GMC,FMC,BC. CONCLUSION: The findings demonstrated a huge improvement in both fine and gross engine capacities, as evaluated by the BOTMP.

AimTo perform a scoping literature review of associations between risk factors in early life and developmental coordination disorder (DCD).MethodPubMed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Web of Science (January 1994–March 2019) were searched to identify studies on early risk factors and motor impairment or DCD. The effect of single and multiple risk factors was assessed. Level of evidence was evaluated following the Centre for Evidence‐Based Medicine guidelines. Meta‐analysis on the effect of preterm birth was performed.ResultsThirty‐six studies fulfilled inclusion criteria; 35 had evidence level 3, one had level 4. Highest evidence was available that preterm birth and male sex in term‐born children were associated with DCD. The odds ratio of preterm birth was 2.02 (95% confidence interval: 1.43–2.85). Low to moderate evidence was available that parental subfertility, maternal smoking during pregnancy, postnatal corticosteroid treatment in infants born preterm, extra corporeal membrane oxygenation, retinopathy of prematurity, abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging scans at term age, and accumulating perinatal or neonatal risk factors were associated with motor impairment.InterpretationLimited information on early risk factors of DCD is available. Only preterm birth and male sex were consistently associated with an increased risk of DCD.What this paper addsPreterm birth is a risk factor for developmental coordination disorder (DCD).In term‐born children, male sex was consistently associated with DCD.Risk factors for DCD are similar to risk factors for cerebral palsy.

Impaired sleep is associated with negative effects on quality of life and daytime functioning. Higher rates of sleep disturbance are reported in children with various developmental disorders. However, little is known about sleep in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), a condition characterized by everyday movement difficulties. Previously, in a preliminary study, we found higher rates of parent-reported sleep disturbance in children with DCD compared to controls. To examine sleep in DCD using objective measures and to examine links with daytime fatigue and sleepiness. Two groups (primary and secondary school-aged) of 15 children with DCD, plus matched controls, participated. Parent-reported child sleep was assessed using the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire and actigraphy provided an objective measure of sleep-wake patterns over 1 week (including weekdays and weekend). Pediatric restless legs syndrome (RLS) semi-structured diagnostic interview was conducted with each child and parent to capture symptoms of RLS. Aspects of self-rated child functioning were assessed with questionnaires (Pre-sleep Arousal Scale, Pediatric Daytime Sleepiness Scale, PedsQL Multidimensional Fatigue Scale) and mothers' reported thoughts about child sleep with the Maternal Cognitions about Infant Sleep Questionnaire. The DCD groups had greater parent-reported sleep disturbance. Actigraphy results suggested that for secondary aged children with DCD their sleep quality was impaired and there were differences in the timing of sleep compared to controls (including some differences in the variation between weekday and weekend sleep times). The actigraphy of the primary age group with DCD was unremarkable compared to controls. No child in the study met the criteria for RLS. Exploratory analyses suggested that daytime fatigue, aspects of pre-sleep arousal, and daytime sleepiness were reported as greater in the DCD groups and were particularly related to objective sleep parameters in the DCD groups. Maternal thoughts about sleep did not differ between the DCD and control groups. The nature and underlying cause of sleep disturbance and how it might be linked with aspects of daytime functioning in adolescents with DCD requires further research. Meanwhile, clinical awareness of the risk of atypical sleep patterns/sleep problems in DCD is important to ensure early identification and implementation of appropriate support.

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) may have participation restrictions; however, there is little information about the specific characteristics of the participation of children with this condition. Given the relevance of participation as an outcome of physiotherapeutic interventions, the objective of this study was to provide a broad review of studies on participation in children with DCD. We mapped the literature using a scoping review, through the MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL and Web of Science databases to identify studies on participation in children with DCD published between 2001 and 2021. The studies were selected by two independent researchers considering the following criteria: (1) studies that evaluated participation and/or constructs related to participation in children with DCD and (2) children aged 5 to 17 years. Data were extracted independently using standardised forms and synthesised after consensus. Study quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). A total of 2444 studies were initially found. Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria, all from high-income countries. The studies included children with a mean age of 9.7 years, and most used appropriate diagnostic criteria and instruments to assess participation with adequate measurement properties. In general, children with DCD have lower levels of participation compared to children with typical development, particularly in physical activities and social participation, with lower engagement in sports teams, leisure and low parental satisfaction. Although findings of decreased participation in children with DCD were consistent, there are gaps in the literature regarding the understanding of home and school participation. Studies that identify contextual determinants of participation are also needed so participation can be effectively promoted.