Interrelationships of paternal beliefs, parental involvement and early childhood development in rural China: some evidence from a poverty county

Objective: To investigate the development status and risk factors of infants and toddlers in rural China. Methods: In this cohort study, 603 infants (6-12 months of age, Phase Ⅰ) in the rural areas of QinLing-Bashan (Qin-Ba) in Shaanxi were recruited in the control group that received no intervention from April 2013 to October 2015. Three follow-up visits were performed every six months (Phase Ⅱ(12-18 months of age), Phase Ⅲ (18-24 months of age) and Phase Ⅳ(24-30 months of age)). In all the 4 phases (Ⅰ-Ⅳ), general data of the children and the families were collected by questionnaires, early childhood growth and development were assessed by door to door visits, children's hemoglobin levels were determined by laboratory tests, and the cognitive and motor development screening was conducted by the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. Logistic regression was used to analyze the risk factors affecting the development of infants and toddlers in rural areas and the data were analyzed in terms of risk factors from infants, guardians and family. Results: Phase Ⅱ, Phase Ⅲ and Phase Ⅳ survey recruited 497, 483 and 486 participants respectively. The incidences of cognitive impairment (mental development scores<80) in rural areas of southern Shaanxi were 13.4% (81/603) in Phase Ⅰ(6-12 months), 20.1%(100/497) in PhaseⅡ(12-18 months), 42.9% (207/483) in Phase Ⅲ(18-24 months) and 50.4%(245/486) in Phase Ⅳ(24-30 months) respectively, which showed a significant increase with age (χ(2)=233.40, P<0.01); the incidences of psychomotor impairment (psychomotor development scores<80) of Phase Ⅰ, Phase Ⅱ, Phase Ⅲ and Phase Ⅳ were 25.0% (151/603), 26.8% (133/497), 8.3% (40/483) and 11.9% (58/486), which showed a significant decrease with age (χ(2)=87.08, P<0.01). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the leading risk factor of the cognitive development of 24-30-month-old children was the mothers' poor education background (≤9 years of school education) (OR=2.56, P<0.01), and the main risk factors affecting psychomotor development were the mothers' poor education background (≤9 years of school education) (OR=2.64, P<0.05) and growth retardation (OR=2.95, P=0.07). Conclusions: The early childhood development (especially cognitive development) in the rural areas of Qin-Ba in Shaanxi of China is not optimistic. More attention should be paid to the early childhood development in rural China, especially to the development of children from the mothers with poor education background.

Research in developed countries has found that paternal involvement has positive and significant effects on early childhood development (ECD). Less is known, however, about the state of paternal involvement and its influence on ECD in rural China. Using data collected in Southern China that included 1,460 children aged 6–42 months and their fathers (as well as their primary caregivers), this study examines the association between paternal involvement and ECD. Although the results demonstrate that the average level of paternal involvement is low in rural China, paternal involvement is related to a significant increase in three domains of ECD (cognition, language, and social-emotional skills). Older children benefit significantly more than do younger children from paternal involvement in all domains of ECD. The results also show that, if the mother is the primary caregiver, the mother’s higher educational level and the family’s higher socioeconomic status are positively associated with paternal involvement.

PurposeThis study aims to bridge the gaps in the existing literature by studying the links between children's development and the subjective well-being of the caregivers using first-hand data collected in rural China.Design/methodology/approachAlthough the broad array of literature has examined the effects of child development on the subjective well-being of caregivers, the relationship between early childhood development and caregiver subjective well-being has not been well-studied using sample families with potential developmental delay in rural China. Also, existing research has relied on maternal reports to evaluate the developmental status of children. The study used data collected from 32 townships in seven nationally designated poverty counties in the Qinling mountainous area in 2016. The authors measure child development using the social-emotional module of the Ages & Stages Questionnaire and Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development–Third Edition.FindingsThe authors find that child development indicators are correlated with caregiver subjective well-being. In particular, social-emotional skills are positively associated with life evaluations and positive emotion. However, we do not find any significant correlation between child development and negative emotion or depression, anxiety and stress scores.Originality/valueThe value of this study is to report the indicators of child development in rural China and examines the correlation between child development and caregivers' subjective well-being.

The Elementary School Journal Volume 83, Number 2 ? 1982 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 001 3-5984183/8302-0009$01o.00 Teachers approach their instructional tasks with a variety of perspectives and strategies that emphasize certain aspects of teaching and deemphasize others. For example, some teachers teach language skills using organized games, while other teachers teach the same skills by direct instruction. Teachers adopt different approaches to the same subject matter partly because their teaching situations differ. Their students may have different learning problems or their classrooms may have varied resources and facilities. Even in the

This study investigated the structural relationship between a father's role identity, role belief, marital relationship, and involvement in parenting and examined the mediating effect of a father's belief. A total of 151 fathers with preschoolers in Korea participated in this study. To investigate the hypothesized model, structural equation modeling was used. Data were analyzed with SPSS and AMOS programs. The results suggested that a father's role identity relates to his role belief and involvement in parenting. His role identity has a significant positive direct effect on his involvement in parenting and also an indirect effect on his involvement in parenting via his role belief. This study provides guidelines for developing programs and policies to promote fathers’ involvement in parenting.

To enhance evidence on optimal 24-hour movement behaviors (physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep) in early childhood, this study investigated cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of the composition of these behaviors with social-emotional development, gross motor development and growth in 0-4-year-olds. Data were collected at two timepoints (baseline and 9 months later) in two sub-cohorts from the My Little Moves study: one examining social-emotional development (sub-cohort-SE) and one gross motor development and growth (sub-cohort-GM). Children's time spent in 24-hour movement behaviors was assessed via parent-report using the My Little Moves app. Isometric log-ratios were calculated to represent 24-hour movement behavior composition. Social-emotional and gross motor development were assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III, with both total raw and norm-referenced scaled scores. Children's weight and height were measured to calculate BMI z-scores. Linear regression and mixed-model analyses examined cross-sectional and longitudinal associations, with significant results further explored using compositional isotemporal reallocation analysis. Sub-cohort-SE provided data from 101 children at timepoint 1 (age 20.6 ± 12.5 months) and 62 children at timepoint 2 (age 25.7 ± 9.8 months). Sub-cohort-GM provided data from 60 children at timepoint 1 (age 20.4 ± 10.8 months) and 46 children at timepoint 2 (age 27.6 ± 9.6 months). The composition of 24-hour movement behaviors was significantly associated with raw gross motor development scores in both cross-sectional (p < .001, R²Δ = 0.042) and longitudinal (p < .001, R²Δ = 0.033) analyses. The association with BMI z-scores was significant only in the cross-sectional analysis (p = .015, R²Δ = 0.130). Reallocating 10min from sedentary behavior to physical activity or sleep increased raw gross motor development scores by 0.22 (95% CI [0.11, 0.33]), and 0.27 (95% CI [0.08, 0.45]). Reallocating 10min from sedentary behavior to sleep increased BMI z-scores by 0.04 (95% CI [0.01, 0.06]). The composition of 24-hour movement behaviors was significantly associated with BMI z-scores and gross motor development, but not social-emotional development in children aged 0-4 years. Evidence on the optimal distribution of movement behaviors remains unclear and needs further examination in larger longitudinal studies.

Interrelationships of parental belief, parental investments, and child development: A cross-sectional study in rural China

Interrelationships of caregiver mental health, parenting practices, and child development in rural China

Father involvement in parenting plays a crucial role in influencing adolescent emotion regulation, which is a key factor in children's psychological development. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between paternal involvement and emotional regulation in female adolescents at SMKN 6 Medan. The research used a quantitative approach with a correlational design. The sample consisted of 231 female students from grades X, XI, and XII, selected randomly. Data were collected using questionnaires on emotional regulation and paternal involvement, and analyzed using Pearson correlation techniques. The results showed a significant positive correlation between paternal involvement and emotional regulation in female adolescents (r = 0.440, p &lt; 0.05). The higher the paternal involvement, the better the students' ability to manage their emotions. The implications of this research suggest that paternal involvement plays a crucial role in adolescents' emotional development, and programs that encourage paternal involvement in parenting and education are expected to enhance adolescents' emotional regulation, preparing them to better face life's challenges.Keterlibatan ayah dalam pengasuhan memiliki peran penting dalam mempengaruhi regulasi emosi remaja, yang menjadi faktor krusial dalam perkembangan psikologis anak. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui hubungan antara keterlibatan ayah dan regulasi emosi pada remaja perempuan di SMKN 6 Medan. Metode yang digunakan adalah pendekatan kuantitatif dengan desain korelasional. Sampel penelitian ini terdiri dari 231 siswi kelas X, XI, dan XII yang dipilih secara acak. Data dikumpulkan menggunakan kuesioner tentang regulasi emosi dan keterlibatan ayah, serta dianalisis dengan teknik korelasi Pearson. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan antara keterlibatan ayah dan regulasi emosi pada remaja perempuan (r = 0.440, p &lt; 0.05). Semakin tinggi keterlibatan ayah, semakin tinggi kemampuan siswi dalam mengelola emosi mereka. Implikasi penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa keterlibatan ayah berperan penting dalam perkembangan emosional remaja, dan program yang mendorong keterlibatan ayah dalam pengasuhan dan pendidikan anak diharapkan dapat meningkatkan regulasi emosi remaja, mempersiapkan mereka untuk menghadapi tantangan hidup dengan lebih baik.

To investigate the relationship between father involvement in parenting and mental health problems among children and adolescents in rural China. The Rural Children's Mental Health dataset includes mental health information from 2,489 children and adolescents aged 5-16 in seven provinces in China. The relationship between father involvement in children and adolescents depression risk and anxiety was analyzed by Spearman's correlation analysis, logistic regression analysis, and restricted cubic spline. Father involvement was significantly and negatively associated with depression scores (r = -0.38, P<0.001) and anxiety scores (r = -0.18, P<0.001) in rural Chinese children and adolescents. Both multivariate models indicate that the highest level of father involvement has a protective effect on the risk of depression among children and adolescents (OR = 0.268 and 0.303, 95% CI: 0.149~0.483 and 0.144~0.636), while the association with anxiety risk is only significant in the multivariate model 1 (OR = 0.570, 95% CI: 0.363~0.896). Father involvement is a protective factor for the risk of depression among children and adolescents in rural China. The level of father involvement should be increased, and active participation should be encouraged to reduce the risk of depression in their children and to further promote the mental health of children and adolescents in China.

BackgroundThis study examines gender differences in early childhood cognitive development in rural China, focusing on the role of sibling structure. While gender disparities have narrowed in recent decades, concerns remain regarding unequal household resource allocation in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in contexts shaped by traditional son preference.MethodsData from 1,320 children aged 3 to 7 years across 11 nationally designated poverty counties in the Qinling Mountain region of western China were analyzed. Cognitive ability was assessed using the Chinese version of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). Descriptive statistics and multivariate regression models were employed to investigate the associations between sibling structure and cognitive outcomes by gender.ResultsA negative association was observed between the number of siblings and cognitive scores, with a substantially larger effect for girls. Gender disparities were also evident across sibling composition and age spacing: girls with older siblings, especially those within a three-year age gap, exhibited lower cognitive scores than boys. With respect to birth order, both boys and girls demonstrated first-born and last-born advantages, though the cognitive benefits were less pronounced for girls. These disparities are likely shaped by resource dilution, reduced parental investment, and lower educational expectations for girls.ConclusionsGender differences in early cognitive development persist in rural western China and appear to be significantly influenced by family structure. Traditional norms may continue to affect intra-household resource allocation, often to the detriment of girls. These findings underscore the need for gender-sensitive policy interventions aimed at promoting equitable early childhood development and supporting long-term human capital accumulation.Trial registrationNot applicable.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-23599-y.

This paper empirically investigates the relationships between caregivers’ parenting skills and early cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional development of children aged 6–24 months. The study is based on data from a survey conducted in 100 villages in a typical poor rural area in western China. A total of 1715 households were enrolled in the study. In the study, Parent and Family Adjustment Scales (PAFAS), Bayley Scales of Infant Development version III (BSID-III), and a socioeconomic questionnaire were used to measure caregiver’s parenting skills, child’s development outcomes, and socioeconomic characteristics in sample households, respectively. Multivariate regression was used to estimate the relationship between a caregiver’s parenting skills and the child’s development outcomes. The results show that, first, parenting skills are positively and significantly associated with children’s cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional development, and the link between parenting skills and social-emotional development is the strongest; second, the correlation between parenting skills and development outcomes varies across socioeconomic characteristics and parenting skill dimensions. The results provide evidence for the relationship between parenting skills and early childhood development in rural households in western China. Our findings also suggest that interventions aimed at improving caregivers’ parenting skills during the early stages are necessary for human capital development in rural China.

Purpose: While the importance of domestic violence has been examined in relation to parenting behaviors and child development, less is known about the link between justifying attitudes toward wife beating and parenting, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). This study employs an actor-partner interdependence mediation model to examine how parents' justifying attitudes toward violence against women relate to their own (actor effects) and their partners' (partner effects) level of parental involvement, which then influence their preschool children's early development. Method: Using data from mothers, fathers, and children in 16,010 families residing in LMIC that participated in UNICEF's Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey Waves 4-5-6 and a dyadic mediation modeling approach, we have examined the associations between maternal and paternal justification of violence against women, parental involvement, and children's early development. Results: Results revealed that mothers' greater justification of violence against themselves were associated with decreased level of maternal (actor effect) and paternal (partner effect) involvement, while fathers' greater justification of violence against their wives was related to decreased paternal involvement (actor effect). Furthermore, mediation tests indicated that paternal justification of violence was negatively and indirectly associated with early childhood development through paternal involvement. Moreover, maternal justification of violence was negatively and indirectly associated with early childhood development through both maternal and paternal involvement. Conclusion: Mothers' and fathers' justifying attitudes toward domestic violence emerge as a possible risk factor for child development that can be addressed by preventive interventions.

Half of rural toddlers aged 0–3 years in China's Qinling Mountainous region are cognitively delayed. While recent studies have linked poor child development measures to the absence of positive parenting behaviors, much less is known about the role that caregiver depression might play in shaping child development. In this paper, a mixed methods analysis is used to explore the prevalence of depression; measure the association between caregiver depression and children's developmental delays, correlates of depression, and the potential reasons for caregiver depression among women in rural China. The analysis brings together results from a large-scale survey of 1,787 caregivers across 118 villages in one northwestern province, as well as information from in-depth interviews with 55 female caregivers from these same study sites. Participants were asked to respond to the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) as well as a scale to measure children's social-emotional development, the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ-SE). We also administered a test of early childhood development, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III), to all of the study household's infants and toddlers. The results show that the prevalence of depression may be as high as 23.5 percent among all female caregivers (defined as scoring in the mild or higher category of the DASS-21). Grandmothers have higher prevalence of depression than mother caregivers (p < 0.01). Caregiver depression also is significantly associated with a 0.53 SD worsening of children's social-emotional development (p < 0.01) and a 0.12 SD decrease in children's language development (p < 0.05). Our qualitative findings reveal six predominant reasons for caregiver depression: lack of social support from family and friends; the burden of caregiving; lack of control and agency within the household; within-family conflict; poverty; the perception of material wealth as a measure of self-worth. Our findings show a serious lack of understanding of mental health issues among rural women, and suggest that rural communities could benefit greatly from an educational program concerning mental health and its influence on child development. Our findings confirm the need for a comprehensive approach toward rural health, with particular attention paid to mental health awareness and support to elderly caregivers.

Children who are under the age of five in underdeveloped and developing countries, including China, exhibit developmental delays due to their exposure to risks such as impoverishment, deprived health conditions, parental punishment, neglect, and poor psychosocial stimulation. Adverse experiences during the formative years of life, such as harsh parental discipline, may put them at risk for poor physical and mental well-being. The aim of this research is to explore the pervasiveness and developmental outcomes of different forms of discipline practices in the underdeveloped rural areas of China. To do this, we used cross-sectional data on child–caregiver dyads from a large survey held in 22 poor counties in the QinBa Mountain Region. The sample included 1622 children aged 12–36 months. Partakers were requested to respond to a general survey on parenting which included basic demographic questions, the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ-SE), the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III), and questions on exposure of children to different discipline practices. Our findings from OLS estimates reveal that aversive discipline methods adversely affect cognitive, language, and socio-emotional development, whereas, non-aversive discipline practices have constructive effects on cognitive, language, and motor development of children.