Inter-Group Contact Theory and the Government’s Perspectives

A goal shared enthusiastically amongst many social psychologists is the improvement of intergroup relations. Conflict between groups is usually related to distinct, and in many cases opposing, identities, based on (for example) ethnicity, nationality, and religion, but also gender, age, sexual orientation and political or individual preferences. Our research has developed a new intervention for improving intergroup relations based on an integration of theory and empirical work on social cognition and intergroup relations. We've called the technique Imagined Contact because it is based on the mental simulation of intergroup contact experiences. Collectively, our research has focused on refining and evaluating imagined contact as an effective tool for the enhancement of intergroup relations. Our article in Social and Personality Psychology Compass provides a summary of the basic theory underlying imagined contact, a review of empirical findings to date, and a framework for developing practical applications of the intervention (in particular as a school-based intervention). We wanted to offer a teaching and learning guide for this article because we believe that the imagined contact task provides a flexible, effective, and easy-to-use tool for teachers, seminar leaders, students, and practitioners. The task can be used as a basis for encouraging more positive and open attitudes towards other groups, a way of preparing people for future intergroup encounters, a stimulus for discussions about the value in experiencing social diversity, and a way of illustrating the power of mental processes in forming and challenging attitudes about others.

This study examines the impact of different types of intergroup contact with diverse others on students’ cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills. An undergraduate Multicultural Psychology course required direct intergroup contact by attending at least three multicultural events every semester. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic, this requirement was shifted to allow indirect intergroup contact activities. This paper examined differential shifts on students' cultural competence-related attitudes in sections where students were required to engage in direct intergroup contact (pre-pandemic) versus students who were allowed to engage in indirect intergroup contact (pandemic-transition and pandemic-prepared). Students across all course sections and semesters (N=189) significantly improved on all outcome measures from pre to post. Students did not differ between semesters where students engaged in direct intergroup contact and semesters where students engaged in indirect intergroup contact. Students who engaged in indirect contact experienced equally positive shifts in cultural competence as compared to students who engaged in direct intergroup contact. For educators implementing contact assignments in diversity-focused courses, direct and indirect contact may have similar impacts.

The modern world offers increased connectivity and multiculturism. In this connected world, individuals are frequently granted the opportunity to interact with others from distinct social, ethnic, and religious groups in everyday life. A large body of research suggests that intergroup contact across distinct groups will reduce prejudices and intergroup biases. However, despite the increased opportunity for prejudice- reducing intergroup contact, prejudices remain high in multicultural societies. In exploring this apparent contradiction, recent research suggests that, despite increased opportunities for intergroup contact, many people selectively interact with members from their ingroup. Thus, intergroup avoidance can impede progress in social cohesion and intergroup harmony by preventing beneficial encounters taking place. Previous research has found intergroup anxiety, or the expectation that outgroup members pose a threat to an individual and their ingroup, is strongly and reliably linked to avoidant behaviours. In turn, the most efficacious way to reduce anxiety is through intergroup contact. The problem of intergroup avoidance is therefore circular, where the best way to reduce avoidance is to promote approach behaviours by those who are avoidant. Reducing intergroup anxiety using techniques more likely to be engaged with could interrupt this circular problem, thereby reducing intergroup avoidance. This thesis comprises two theoretical reviews, one systematic review (k = 72), four survey-based studies (N = 2,095) and one experiment (N = 82), that collectively seek to further our understanding of, and provide viable remedies for intergroup anxiety and avoidance to enhance intergroup relations. More specifically, the thesis aims to (1) integrate associative learning and social psychological theories to explain the formation of intergroup anxiety, (2) understand how intergroup anxiety can contribute to a deterioration in intergroup relations, through intergroup avoidance, and; (3) provide an acceptable form of intergroup contact using virtual reality technology. The initial theoretical and empirical work advanced understanding of the formation, measurement, and outcomes of intergroup anxiety. It was argued that intergroup and clinical anxiety share similar properties and are formed through the same processes. Aversive conditioning processes have been observed in the laboratory and used to explain the formation of clinical anxiety. More recently, these same processes have been shown to contribute to intergroup anxiety. To measure intergroup anxiety in this thesis, a new self-report scale was created that integrated common laboratory markers of anxiety (physiological reactivity) with typical self-report inventories. In three studies, the construct and convergent validity of the Cognitive, Affective, and Physiological Intergroup Anxiety (CAP-IA) scale was supported. This new scale could also be utilised in future research. To test the proposition that aversive conditioning processes contribute to intergroup anxiety, a retrospective method was used where participants described their first negative encounter with an outgroup member. Congruent with aversive conditioning processes, participants who reported an unpleasant event with an outgroup member reported more fear during the encounter than did those who did not report experiencing an unpleasant event. Additionally, intergroup fear indirectly predicted greater outgroup avoidance through elevated intergroup anxiety. These results showed that aversive conditioning can contribute to the formation of intergroup anxiety outside the laboratory. Subsequent work attempted to develop an accepted and efficacious form of indirect intergroup contact using virtual reality. In a theoretical review, I advanced a temporal model of acceptability for contact-based interventions, which argued that individuals would prefer institutionally supported and indirect intergroup contact, thereby making intergroup avoidance less likely. All forms of indirect contact were argued to have these benefits, but virtual reality intergroup contact (VRIC) was introduced as a novel indirect contact strategy because it could offer distinct benefits over existing indirect contact strategies, including increased interactivity and presence. Survey-based studies were conducted to examine the acceptability of VRIC and did not provide clear evidence that individuals would rather engage in VRIC than face-to-face intergroup contact. Furthermore, the final experimental study of this thesis did not find brief exposure to outgroup members through immersive media improved intergroup relations. Nevertheless, this work was the first to empirically assess the acceptability of an indirect contact strategy and demonstrated that immersive virtual exposure to outgroup members elicits greater physiological responses than static-images of the same. Taken together, the findings from the current thesis provide a novel investigation of the formation of intergroup anxiety and avoidance from a learning perspective. Furthermore, the thesis provides several approaches to reduce intergroup avoidance. These include decreasing intergroup anxiety, providing institutionally supported interventions, and offering indirect contact strategies for individuals high in intergroup anxiety. The continuing levels of prejudice around the world provide an impetus to break down barriers preventing positive and intimate interactions between members of distinct groups. By examining how intergroup avoidance is formed and reduced, this body of work provides new avenues for researchers and interventionists to work toward decreased segregation and greater intergroup harmony.

Direct and indirect intergroup contact effects on prejudice: A normative interpretation

The present article presents a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. With 713 independent samples from 515 studies, the meta-analysis finds that intergroup contact typically reduces intergroup prejudice. Multiple tests indicate that this finding appears not to result from either participant selection or publication biases, and the more rigorous studies yield larger mean effects. These contact effects typically generalize to the entire outgroup, and they emerge across a broad range of outgroup targets and contact settings. Similar patterns also emerge for samples with racial or ethnic targets and samples with other targets. This result suggests that contact theory, devised originally for racial and ethnic encounters, can be extended to other groups. A global indicator of Allport's optimal contact conditions demonstrates that contact under these conditions typically leads to even greater reduction in prejudice. Closer examination demonstrates that these conditions are best conceptualized as an interrelated bundle rather than as independent factors. Further, the meta-analytic findings indicate that these conditions are not essential for prejudice reduction. Hence, future work should focus on negative factors that prevent intergroup contact from diminishing prejudice as well as the development of a more comprehensive theory of intergroup contact.

Classic research on the contact hypothesis focused on the direct relationship between the antecedents (conditions under which contact occurs) and the outcomes (primarily, the reduction of prejudice) of intergroup contact. Recent work has taken a broader view of contact processes and effects. We review key developments over the past 20 years, identifying different forms of contact, factors that mediate and moderate the effects of contact, and both the nature and temporal stage and the varied outcomes of contact. We then identify several research directions to address pressing theoretical and practical issues. These issues concern (a) group processes and intergroup relations, (b) intergroup contact in the context of multiple categorization, (c) structural- and individual-level processes, (d) a broader range of individual-level outcomes (e.g., health), and (e) impact on social change. Contact theory and research provides a comprehensive conceptual foundation, allied to a range of powerful empirical techniques, for important new advances and practical applications for improving intergroup relations and producing more equitable outcomes across groups.

Today, physical and psychological barriers can reduce opportunities for the type of direct face‐to‐face intergroup contact first identified by Gordon Allport. Consequently, social psychological researchers have identified, developed and tested a burgeoning array of different forms of indirect contact, including, extended contact, Electronic‐ or E‐contact, imagined contact, vicarious contact and parasocial contact. In addition to providing a critical review of each of these forms, we argue that indirect contact is more than just a simple “replacement” for direct contact, but instead has the potential to improve intergroup relations for both minority and majority members in its own right. Relatedly, we acknowledge that indirect contact occurs within specific normative contexts embodied in legislation, institutions, and media and political contents. In fact, we recognize that indirect contact requires an integrative understanding of the role of intergroup norms and affective processes in order to effectively achieve public policy objectives to optimize effects on prejudice reduction.

Intergroup contact, the direct or extended (or virtual/imagined) interaction with members of other groups, has enjoyed a long history in social psychology. Allport (1954) introduced the “Contact Hypothesis”, which has since evolved into a full and complex “Contact Theory” (Brown & Hewstone, 2005; see also Hodson & Hewstone, 2013; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2001; Turner, Hewstone, Voci, Vonofakou, & Christ, 2007). Across different types of groups, different types of contact, and different methodologies, researchers find that having more encounters with specific outgroup members tends to reduce prejudice toward that group as a whole (see meta-analyses by Davies, Tropp, Aron, Pettigrew, & Wright, 2014; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006; Lemmer & Wagner, 2015). Importantly, contact works more reliably at reducing prejudice relative to other interventions (e.g., Beelmann & Heinemann, 2014). Yet researchers historically felt that individual differences in prejudice-proneness (e.g., authoritarianism) were either irrelevant to, or were obstacles to, contact-based prejudice reduction (see Hodson, Costello, & MacInnis, 2013). More recently, interest in individual differences in contact settings has grown steadily. This article serves as an education tool to not only teach students about intergroup contact and personality (among other individual differences), but to encourage them to consider the possibilities for learning and prejudice reduction when these two topics are conceptually integrated.

This contribution examines the role of vicarious contact (observing in-group members having successful cross-group contact) as a tool to improve intergroup relations. Expanding previous research on indirect intergroup contact, vicarious contact (1) integrates and applies concepts of social-cognitive theory ( Bandura, 1986 ) to the field of intergroup contact research; (2) broadens the study of indirect contact effects to the observation of successful cross-group interactions; and (3) proposes to increase people’s intention for direct cross-group contact. Two video-based experiments indicate that vicarious contact improves attitudes towards the out-group and increases participants’ willingness to engage in direct cross-group contact. These studies provide evidence that the relation between vicarious contact and intergroup attitudes (and willingness to engage in direct contact) is sequentially mediated by self-efficacy expectancy and perceived intergroup uncertainty. Implications of these findings for further research on the (indirect) contact hypothesis and their application will be discussed.

Policymakers often assume that interactions between host society members and immigrants will promote integration. However, scholars caution against such assumptions, considering both contact theory's optimism and group threat theory's concerns. In the present study, we examine a series of hypotheses pertaining to intergroup contact and group threat theories, utilising data collected from Istanbul, Türkiye. Ordered logistic regression models are employed to examine how contact and threat dynamics affect integration perceptions. Findings indicate that the quality and site of intergroup contact, rather than its quantity, significantly influence host community members' perceptions of refugee integration and Syrians' self‐perceptions of their integration. Furthermore, threat perceptions significantly affect integration perceptions while intergroup contact moderates the impact of threat perception.

Numerous studies found that different forms of positive indirect intergroup contact relate to people’s intergroup attitudes. Much less work has explored whether negative forms of indirect contact predict intergroup attitudes and even less evidence exists on the co-occurrence of direct and indirect forms of intergroup contact and, thus, the expected joint impact of a combination of interventions. We explore the additive effects of four types of indirect contact in predicting intergroup attitudes: extended contact, vicarious contact, mass-mediated contact, and virtual vicarious contact through social media. We also explore whether the effects of indirect contact are stronger when people have less direct contact. For each type, we measure positive and negative contact experiences. Data come from two studies (N1 = 785; N2 = 858) asking native Dutch respondents about indirect contact experiences with members of immigrant communities. We find that observing positive intergroup interactions in real life, on mass media, and, to a weaker extent, on social media has additive positive associations with intergroup attitudes. Positive extended contact has only an added effect in Study 1. Of the negative indirect forms of contact, only negative vicarious contact predicts outgroup attitudes. No consistent multiplicative effects appeared across the studies, suggesting that indirect contact effects are not stronger for those with less direct contact. We conclude that observing contact (vicarious contact) may be more impactful than merely knowing of it (extended contact).

PurposeThe transgender community faces prejudice and stigma and is one of the most ostracised groups in society. One of the ways to reduce prejudice is through intergroup contact. This may be achieved through direct or indirect contact. The purpose of this paper is to compare the impact of direct and indirect contact on reducing transphobia.Design/methodology/approachDirect contact was achieved through a transgender speaker panel and indirect contact involved a video presentation. In total, 159 students enroled in undergraduate courses at a prominent university in India were enlisted for this study. Perceptions regarding transgenders were measured using the genderism and transphobia scale. Perceptions were measured at three different time points – before the contact, immediately after the contact and one month post contact.FindingsResults indicate that both direct and indirect contact cause a significant immediate decrease in transphobia at the post intervention stage. However, only direct contact caused significant reduction at the follow-up stage (one month after the intervention). Direct contact also effected a greater reduction in transphobia than indirect contact.Research limitations/implicationsThis study extends previous research that shows that speaker panels involving sexual minority speakers can result in reducing stigma (e.g. Croteau and Kusek, 1992). The present study shows that such speaker panels can also be useful for reducing stigma against transgender individuals. Another important outcome of this study is the relative effectiveness of direct contact in reducing transphobia compared to indirect contact. Direct contact resulted in greater reduction in transphobia both at the post-test and follow-up stages compared to indirect contact.Practical implicationsThe results of this study may benefit HR practitioners and policy makers in designing workplace initiatives and policies in creating an inclusive workplace. This study shows that meaningful interaction with transgenders would be a key step in reducing stigmatisation. Since direct contact is rarely expensive or time consuming, it can be a valuable tool to improve the integration of transgender individuals within society. Therefore, students and employees may be encouraged to interact with transgender individuals through panel discussions and workshops. Indirect contact may be used as a preliminary intervention in certain cases where direct contact may be difficult to organise.Social implicationsThe stigma faced by transgender individuals has a significant negative impact on their quality of life (Grant et al., 2014; Reisner and Juntunen, 2015). It is, therefore, necessary to recognise and reduce prejudice against transgenders at both the college and school levels as well as in work organisations. Educators and managers have a significant role to play in this societal change. This study shows that stigma reduction can be achieved in a fairly simple way through contact theory.Originality/valueThis study is one of the first to investigate Indian students’ perceptions of transgenders. It improves on earlier studies using similar interventions in two main ways. First, this study includes a follow-up assessment, which was not performed in most studies. Second, random assignment of participants to one of two conditions improves the reliability of the findings.

This study explores how South Korean teachers’ beliefs about social justice teaching intersect with their intergroup contact experiences when teaching migrant students under expanded curriculum autonomy. A comparative qualitative case study approach was used, drawing on interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recalls. The findings reveal three models of social justice teaching – functional, critical, and liberal – as manifest in each teacher’s practice. The discussion highlights two key aspects: First, regarding contact experiences, teachers’ experience of being minoritized in intergroup contact has a more pronounced effect on their prejudice reduction than the density or frequency of contact per se; and indirect contact with outgroup members can be as effective as direct contact in reducing stereotypes. Second, concerning teacher beliefs and policy implementation, teachers’ beliefs significantly shape their interactions with minoritized students; and increased curriculum autonomy does not necessarily lead to critical social justice teaching. Implications for teacher education are discussed.

Introduction

Social norms are important predictors of youth attitudes and behaviours. There is substantial evidence that positive and meaningful intergroup contact supported by inclusive norms can have a range of benefits beyond prejudice reduction. The present research explores whether perceived peer inclusion norms and perceived norms of equality in school are associated with better quality and more frequent intergroup contact and in turn, whether these are associated with better academic self‐efficacy. To test these assertions, we conducted a cross‐sectional survey with ethnic majority and ethnic minority youth aged 11–12 (n = 629, 48% female, 43% minority ethnic) attending one of four ethnically diverse secondary schools in England. In support of our hypotheses, we found that both perceived inclusive peer norms and perceived school equality norms were associated with higher quantity and quality of contact for both ethnic majority and minority group youth. An indirect effect was observed whereby perceived peer norms of inclusion and school norms of equality were associated with higher academic self‐efficacy through higher quality outgroup contact for both groups. No indirect effect was observed for contact quantity. Findings evidence the importance of perceived peer and school equality norms as well as intergroup contact effects for outcomes that go beyond prejudice reduction, in this case academic self‐efficacy.