Integration, demands and accommodations: An exploration of summative assessment practices in Dutch bilingual secondary education

The content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is acknowledged as a dual-focused educational approach and practice for better access in both languages and content learning. In the last two decades, CLIL has been increasingly under close scrutiny, especially in Europe and Latin America (Pérez-Cañado, 2018; Banegas, Poole, & Corrales, 2020). However, it has been expanded globally and takes up a notable position in the field of ELT. Here comes the publication of this edited collection, signal of an increased need and interests in CLIL across the world.
 This book consists of four parts and fourteen chapters. Besides first part serves as introductory overview of CLIL’s theoretical development and last part as conclusional prospect of conduction of CLIL--both of which are presented by the editors of the book under review--this volume encompasses twelve papers falling under two headings: CLIL practice and CLIL professional development.
 The part of CLIL practice addresses a variety of cultural backgrounds and educational contexts where CLIL implementations are conducted. This part discusses assessment issue in CLIL Spanish history course and translanguaging in CLIL science class in Colombia, attesting to the authenticity (chapter 2) and engaging effect of CLIL. Shifting to a less explored contexts in Japan and Taiwan, there are 3 chapters in this part that investigate the possibilities of implementing CLIL in Asian EFL contexts. Chapter 4 investigates the students’ perception of being assessed in a CLIL programme in Japanese University, chapter 6 concentrates on the interaction between teacher and students that ficilitates both content and language learning in a CLIL classroom in Japan. Chaper 7 surveys students in a CLIL programme at a polytechnic university in Taiwan with CQS (Cultural Quotient Scale) and finds that CLIL approach effectively promotes learners’ cross-cultural understanding and CQ competence. This part empirically reveals the malleability and accessibility of CLIL in various cross-cultural educational settings.
 The part of CLIL professional development explores in what ways CLIL can be sustained across educational levels and types of education provision. Chapter 8 reflects CLIL models in Australian TESOL course, chapter 12 offers evidence that CLIL approach can also be utilized in coursebook for very young learners in tandem with second language learning in the context of schooling. This part also mentions language and content teachers’ needs for professional training that can provide instructions and strategies in both their pre- and in-service phases (chapter 9, 10, 11). Chapter 13 shows the significance of teachers’ awareness of possible hegemonic ideologies in CLIL class. It is crucial for people to realize that instead of being regarded as an elitist education/language learning approach (Van Mensel, Hiligsmann, Mettewie, & Galand, 2020), “CLIL can become the platform through which multilingual education is embraced as an option for anyone regardless of personal circumstances” (Hemmi & Banegas, 2021:306).
 Taken as a whole, this anthology helps language teachers to establish a comprehensive understanding of CLIL initiatives and contributes concrete pedagogical implications for language teaching researchers, as well as education policy makers, postgraduates, and language teacher educators all over the world.

Bilingual education, usually a community’s L1 and English continues spreading geographically and across educational systems worldwide. With this expansion, the development of bilingual education approaches is under constant scrutiny. One recent approach is content and language integrated learning (CLIL). European in origin, CLIL can be viewed as an educational or language teaching approach and it refers to the teaching of curricular content and L2 in an integrated manner. This approach has received international attention, yet, how CLIL unfolds in settings outside Europe appears underrepresented in international publications. The aim of this article is to provide a critical review of CLIL in Latin America between 2008 and 2018. We surveyed 64 items (articles, book chapters, and dissertations) published in regional and international outlets: 41 empirical studies, 19 practice-oriented publications, and four reviews. It begins by summarizing the CLIL continuum with a focus on content- and language-driven CLIL and CLIL frameworks. It then provides a synthesis of empirical studies and practice-oriented publications about CLIL in different Latin American settings. The corpus is analyzed following these unifying themes: pedagogy, perceptions and beliefs, teacher education, global citizenship, and language development. From this review, it transpires that Latin American CLIL is mostly implemented and examined from a language-driven perspective in private primary, secondary and higher education. Suggestions and implications for further research and practice are included.

Bilingual programmes in which an L2 is used as the medium of instruction are becoming popular in different parts of the world, and content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is one variant of such programmes. Recent research on CLIL has gradually shifted from product-oriented (i.e. evaluating the effectiveness of CLIL in terms of language and content learning outcomes) to more process-oriented by exploring classroom interaction in detail to gain insight into effective pedagogy and teacher education. This paper compares two different settings of CLIL classrooms in Hong Kong (where CLIL is referred to as ‘English Medium Instruction’). In one setting, the Grade 10 teachers and students (aged 15) had experienced CLIL for the first three years of secondary education; in the second one, the Grade 10 teachers and students had just started to experience the CLIL approach. In our comprehensive analysis of 15 observed lessons, we found that the teacher–student interaction where CLIL had just started was more monologic: the teacher dominated the lesson talk, students had difficulties expressing their meaning in L2, question-and-answer sequences were constrained – a finding which would cause concern if replicated more generally. Our interpretation is that it takes time for both teachers and students to get used to integrated content and language learning, teachers need to develop skills to engage students in extended verbal exchanges, and students need to reach operational levels of L2 proficiency. The findings of this study yield significant implications for the successful implementation of CLIL in other contexts.

In recent years, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has become the subject of attention, especially in East Asian countries, due to the introduction of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education in primary schools. However, limited empirical studies have been conducted regarding the feasibility and potentiality of content- and language-integrated instruction in these contexts (Butler, Nihon no shougakkou eigo wo kangaeru: ajia no shiten karano kensho to teigen [Thinking About Japanese Elementary School English: Inspection and Suggestion from Asian Perspective]. Tokyo: Sanseidou, 2005) with fewer studies related to Japanese primary schools (Yamano, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in a Japanese Elementary School: A Comparative Study of a CLIL Program in Early EFL Education. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sophia University, Tokyo, 2012; Utilizing the CLIL approach in a Japanese primary school: A comparative study of CLIL and EFL lessons. The Asian EFL Journal, 15(4), 70–92, 2013a; Exploring the use of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in foreign language activities. JES Journal, 13, 20–35, 2013b; CLIL in a Japanese primary school: Exploring the potential of CLIL in a Japanese EFL context. International CLIL Research Journal, 2(1), 19–30, 2013c; Exploring the cognitive change of an elementary school teacher through CLIL practices. Bulletin of Utsunomiya University, Division of Educational Department, 65, 205–219, 2015). Therefore, this study explores the potential of CLIL application in a Japanese context from four important aspects, known as the 4Cs: Content (subject matter), Communication (language learned and used in the CLIL lesson), Cognition (cognitive skills), and Community/Culture (awareness toward learning community and pluricultural understanding) (Coyle, Content and language integrated learning: Towards a connected research agenda for CLIL pedagogies. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10, 543–562, 2007; Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010; Mehisto, Marsh, & Frigols, Uncovering CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Oxford: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). This chapter first defines the Japanese primary EFL education and discusses the rationale for applying a CLIL approach in a Japanese primary school context. Then, based on the 4Cs perspective, it investigates the differences between a CLIL class of 35 students and a non-CLIL class of 36 students in conventional EFL instruction and analyzes results from three different data sets: classroom observations, pupil questionnaires, and teachers’ interviews. Lastly, the present study indicates the potential of a CLIL approach in a Japanese primary EFL environment regarding the 4Cs perspective: enhancing diversity and experiential learning because of the authentic content, accelerating classroom interaction, deepening students’ cognitive learning, and activating students’ cooperative learning as well as comprehension of global issues.

Recent global developments have intensified the use of English as a lingua franca (ELF), the principal means of communication employed among speakers of different linguistic backgrounds to interact worldwide. Consequently, there has been a growing interest in the pedagogical implications and applications of ELF in language teaching and learning. Few works, though, have investigated the influence of ELF in bilingual education such as in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). The current paper describes the design and implementation of a CLIL + ELF observation tool that was used to study a pilot CLIL program in Taiwan and to anticipate CLIL teachers’ training needs. The data collected from the rubric were contrasted with several unstructured interviews. The rubric contains 10 criteria developed from previous CLIL and ELF studies including: learners’ L1 and L2 proficiency; teachers’ L2 proficiency; teachers’ ability to reflect upon their practice; their familiarity with CLIL and ELF methodologies; and the school’s commitment to bilingual education and language policy considerations. Using these criteria, the researchers identified many positive results such as teachers’ growing familiarity with CLIL and their use of class management language, content-related language, and academic communication. The study also suggests areas for improvement such as the need for teacher training regarding ELF.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an educational approach that simultaneously teaches a non-language subject and a foreign language, enhancing both content knowledge and language skills. Originating in Europe, CLIL focuses on the 4Cs: content, communication, cognition, and culture, ensuring balanced subject matter and language proficiency. CLIL is distinct from bilingual or immersion education by its integrated approach. The Council of Europe supports CLIL to promote multilingualism and improve curricula quality. This study aims to analyze the foreign experience with CLIL, explore its didactic potential, and evaluate its implementation prospects in Ukraine. CLIL is characterized by integrating subject content with language learning, fostering language development through meaningful contexts, and enhancing cognitive skills like critical thinking and problem-solving. It also promotes cultural awareness and can be adapted to various educational contexts and proficiency levels. It has been defined that effective CLIL implementation requires trained teachers and appropriate materials. The methodology has spread across Europe, with various models tailored to different educational contexts. The Adjunct Model integrates language learning with subject teaching, the Embedded Model fully integrates language and content, and the Dual-Focus Model balances content and language objectives. Successful examples include bilingual schools in Hungary and long-standing practices in Bulgaria. The advantages of CLIL’s implementation have been defined. They include increased motivation, contextual language learning, preparation for a globalized world, and enhanced language proficiency. It also promotes content knowledge alongside language skills, offers international opportunities, and bridges language and content classes. However, challenges include the need for trained teachers, balancing content and language instruction, resource limitations, and large class sizes. Overcoming these challenges involves professional development, collaboration, material development, gradual integration, and using technology. The conclusion has been formulated that CLIL enhances language skills and subject knowledge, transforming educational approaches and improving learning outcomes.

CLIL is widely implemented in English as a foreign language class, but there has been no specific research conducted to identify the advantages and challenges of implementing it in the context of bilingual education. This study aims to examine the implementation of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in bilingual education. Specifically, this study focuses on the benefits of CLIL in bilingual education and the challenges of implementing CLIL in bilingual education. Then, a recommendation to implement CLIL effectively was drawn using the benefits and the challenges of CLIL. This research was conducted by following the steps of a literature review. Data was collected from articles from accredited international journals published online from 2012 to 2022. The collected data were analyzed qualitatively using an interactive data analysis model, carried out in three stages of analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification. The data collected showed that CLIL improved mastery of a second language. It is because CLIL provides a lot of exposure for the students. Besides, CLIL enables students to acquire English by practicing it actively. The challenge in implementing CLIL lies in teachers’, students’, and teaching media readiness. To run CLIL effectively, it should be done by considering the quality, quantity, and consistency of the English exposure.

CLIL is widely implemented in English as a foreign language class, but there has been no specific research conducted to identify the advantages and challenges of implementing it in the context of bilingual education. This study aims to examine the implementation of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in bilingual education. Specifically, this study focuses on the benefits of CLIL in bilingual education and the challenges of implementing CLIL in bilingual education. Then, a recommendation to implement CLIL effectively was drawn using the benefits and the challenges of CLIL. This research was conducted by following the steps of a literature review. Data was collected from articles from accredited international journals published online from 2012 to 2022. The collected data were analyzed qualitatively using an interactive data analysis model, carried out in three stages of analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification. The data collected showed that CLIL improved mastery of a second language. It is because CLIL provides a lot of exposure for the students. Besides, CLIL enables students to acquire English by practicing it actively. The challenge in implementing CLIL lies in teachers’, students’, and teaching media readiness. To run CLIL effectively, it should be done by considering the quality, quantity, and consistency of the English exposure.

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) approach has become a much debated feature of the education system in recent years. The study reported here examines the role of CLIL within the context of the Kurdistan Educational System. In particular, it investigates CLIL implementation in Kurdistan’s schools and its impact on the acquisition of the English language, contents of main subjects at the individual level, students and teachers, and the whole educational system. The study does not examine the impact of CLIL within the Kurdish education system, but a possible role for it. In order to do this, it first reviews the existing theoretical viewpoints on CLIL and its significance in language learning through the study of content of other subjects. A framework is then developed to describe the current situation of the Kurdistan Educational System and review CLIL in a different context. Data is obtained mainly through questionnaires to teachers and students in the Kurdistan Educational System and semi-structured interviews with two Spanish students who had experience in CLIL. All collected perceptions are analysed and implications for the usefulness of CLIL for Kurdistan Education System, teachers’ and students’ perspective on implementing CLIL in Kurdistan’s school and how CLIL be implemented in Kurdistan. Data from the study suggests that studying the content of some of the main subjects in Kurdistan’s schools provides more opportunity to expand intellectual horizons of students while improving their English language skills and knowledge. Owing to these reasons, integrating learning language and content from early age in schools will impact the entire education and higher education systems in Kurdistan. This is the first study to investigate the role of CLIL in the Kurdish context and further longitudinal studies are required to improve our understanding of the implications of the wider introduction, role, and advantages of implementing CLIL in Kurdistan and how to incorporate CLIL into Kurdish education policy.

In a political context of international cooperation in education, one of the EU’s multilingualism goals is for every European to speak two languages in addition to their mother tongue (Commission of the European Communities, Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society. White Paper on Education and Training. Brussels: ERIC Clearinghouse, 1995). In this context, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has emerged as a major innovation for improving the quality of language learning and introducing a reform of educational curricula. Spain has become one of the European leaders in the development of bilingual and multilingual education policies based on CLIL (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, CLIL—Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). However, the rapid expansion of these Spanish bilingual and plurilingual programmes (Llinares & Dafouz, Content and language integrated programs in the Madrid region: Overview and research findings. In D. Lasagabaster & Y. Ruiz de Zarobe (Eds.), CLIL in Spain: Implementation, Results and Teacher Training (pp. 95–114). Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2010) has exceeded the provision of teachers who are able to face the challenge of CLIL. According to Perez-Canado (Teacher training needs for bilingual education: In-service teacher perceptions. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 19(3), 266–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2014.980778, 2016), overcoming this challenge is key to any future vision for the improvement of bilingual education. This chapter provides a detailed diagnosis of pre-service and in-service teacher training for CLIL in Spain and describes Spanish CLIL teachers’ needs with reference to their linguistic and methodological profile.

Bilingual and multilingual education through content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has been introduced in the European Union mainstream education and beyond. However, initial education of CLIL teachers lacks sufficient training in CLIL and demands tailored programmes adapted to contextual demands. For this, opinions and competence in CLIL lesson planning of education degree students from all specialities and years at a university that trains potential CLIL teachers were analysed. A mixed-method study, based on a convergent parallel design, was employed to integrate quantitative (N = 271) and qualitative (N = 24) methods to measure infant and primary education student teachers’ competence to plan CLIL lessons and compare it with their conceptualisation of what a CLIL course should include. Results showed statistically significant differences in this competence among the degrees and revealed that students perceive lack of lesson planning opportunities, low level of proficiency of some teachers, superficial training in cross-cutting areas, and imbalance between theoretical and practical training as influencing factors in their perception as potential CLIL teachers. This study enables higher education stakeholders to connect with the reality of initial teacher training for CLIL from student teachers’ voices and signals priority actions to prevent the main lacks when CLIL teacher training happens later.

1 IntroductionCLIL, EMILE, and Bili are just three of the most common abbreviations for the concept that this article is trying to describe and explore on a European level with specialized focus on Germany. The English term CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), the French term EMILE (Enseignement d'une Matiere par TIntegration d'une Langue Etrangere) and the German abbreviation Bili (Bilingualer Unterricht = BU) usually evoke various ideas and attitudes in the readers' minds because these concepts have been present in the discussions of educationists, in teacher training and in school systems in Europe.First of all, it is important to stress the fact that the term is commonly used for children who have been raised bilingually. As far as teaching is concerned, it is widely used in Canada and the US and deals with questions of integration into a monolingual (USA) or bilingual culture (Canada) by learning a second language (L2) (Muller-Hartmann and Schocker-von-Ditfurth, 2004: 151). In Germany and in most parts of Europe however, the term bilingual does not refer to the mastery of a second language at native-like proficiency but it describes a partial foreign language competence {segmenteile Fremdsprachenkompetenz)1 (Kollenrott, 2008: 20). BU therefore defines a way of teaching in which subject matters are mainly taught in a foreign language (Bach, 2010: 15). We will go into more details of definition under 2.1.Generally, the concept of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), which is the most used term for bilingual education in Europe, is perceived as innovative, successful and helpful for the development of multilingualism and cultural awareness, deeper intercultural competence, and critical thinking. For the last two decades, researchers have been pointing out a wide range of advantages of bilingual education in schools such as more intense language learning, especially in concern to technical terms in subject instruction, an awareness for the relevance of a lingua franca in science and research, better preparation for (international) careers in the globalized world, deeper knowledge about partner countries and their language and finally a stronger awareness for different perspectives leading to intercultural competence. Thus, students are trained as intercultural mediators (KMK 2006:11/Wolff, 2010: 153-154) and enabled for participation in international scientific discourses. (Hallet, 2005: 4, Kollenrott, 2008: 20, Mentz, 2010: 29, KMK, 2006: 10; Wolff, 2007: 22)From what we know about content subject learning in a foreign language, we can conclude that learners learn faster and are more motivated than in traditional content subject classrooms. CLIL learners are, in general, better content learners. They process content more deeply in the foreign language than in their other tongue and construct complex concepts and schemata. (Wolff, 2007: 16-22) Large empirical studies such as the longitudinal study by Winfried Bredenbroker (2000) in the German Land Lower Saxony were able to prove that students that were taught in bilingual classes had considerably higher and more homogenous (as far as the class as a whole is concerned) progress in language learning, especially regarding reading skills. In 2006, the DESI-Studie2 also demonstrated the above-mentioned advantages of bilingual education for the acquisition of a foreign language by using parallel control groups.However, these positive effects are not necessarily the result of criteria inherent to CLIL. It is essential to be extremely careful when it comes to the results of qualitative as well as quantitative research on CLIL. To give an idea of why data should be read with a critical eye on the background of the study, we would like to provide just one short example from a German perspective: Bilingual streams have been implemented in the late 1960s at the so-called Gymnasium, which is an elite type of school preparing students for university. …

This chapter explores Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) pedagogy and teacher education (TE) in a context beyond Europe, especially focusing on the activities of the Japan CLIL Pedagogy Association (J-CLIL). It discusses CLIL pedagogy and TE first and then the issues in CLIL implementation, such as its definition, framework, teacher development, and teacher networks. J-CLIL primarily aims to support CLIL pedagogy in Japan, where primary and secondary school teachers have multiple roles at school and cannot always focus on teaching. The results of a questionnaire, which was conducted to see the current situations of CLIL pedagogy and TE, suggest that CLIL still does not have any stable status as an educational approach in the Japanese context. This chapter therefore proposes several ideas for CLIL teacher development: (1) the contextualized CLIL TE model, (2) the minimal requirements for CLIL teachers, and (3) the program design of CLIL TE in reference to task-based language teaching (TBLT). When starting CLIL TE, the role of J-CLIL will be a key platform to arrange and coordinate the programs. J-CLIL or CLIL teacher networks will play a significant role to help develop each CLIL teacher’s professional knowledge and skills for future CLIL pedagogy in the global context.

Bilingual education could solve many challenges introduced by an increasingly internationalised education system. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), in particular, may equip students with the necessary cultural and communicative skills to succeed in today’s academic environment. However, it is not yet clear how CLIL can be employed effectively in short-term educational contexts where full-term bilingual programmes are not feasible. We designed and assessed a one-day CLIL module for ninth graders at our university’s gene-technology lab. The assessment of our module with 252 grammar school students indicates that a CLIL module does not achieve the same learning success as an equivalent non-CLIL module. Even with additional language scaffolding material, full access to online dictionaries, and the availability of crucial workbook passages in their native language, CLIL students could not achieve the same short-term content learning success. We consequently argue that more attention should be paid to the inherent trade-off between language and content learning when carrying out short-term CLIL programmes. Moreover, we caution against using only content and language scaffolding to mediate this trade-off.

In spite of the multiple competencies necessary to design and deliver proper Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) lessons, the teachers’ linguistic proficiency is the primary competence considered in the accreditation of CLIL teachers in Spain. However, teachers’ competence in planning CLIL lessons is key to bilingual education. This article explores this competence and reports on the several factors that influence the level of integration of CLIL methodological principles in the lesson planning style of in-service teachers at primary and secondary education. The factors studied are the stage of education, curricular subjects, teacher education, status at school, years teaching CLIL and type of school in a sample of 383 in-service CLIL teachers. Results show statistically significant differences in all the factors studied except in the stage of education (primary-secondary) and the type of school (state-semiprivate). These results reveal a high heterogeneity in the sample, which allows the description of the CLIL teacher profiles according to the factors that influence their competence in planning and delivering CLIL lessons. It is concluded that education and training in CLIL competencies, such as planning CLIL lessons, is also necessary in order to achieve a more homogeneous competence profile of the teachers. Therefore, a review of the academic programs and of the accreditation model so as to guarantee that they include prescriptive education and training in CLIL is recommended, since the quality and sustainability of bilingual programs also depends on teachers’ competence in CLIL and not only on the students’ academic results.