Integrating Multimedia Learning Principles in Middle School Science: A Cross-Cultural Study of Computer-Based Optics Instruction in Turkey and Indonesia

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to propose the incorporation of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) into library digital initiatives, specifically open educational resources (OER). CTML contains established principles that maximize the impact of teaching material through optimizing the use of multimedia. As educators, librarians should adhere to CTML principles and advocate for them to be followed when library digital resources are created locally or used in a classroom. The paper looks at an OER title as an example and outlines changes based on CTML for improvements.Design/methodology/approachA literature review is used to identify the areas of librarianship where CTML already is in use and where research is lacking.FindingsThere are many opportunities to apply multimedia learning theory to aspects of library operations. The author should consider multimedia learning when making digitization decisions. OER projects should be accomplished with these principles and general learning theory principles in mind. Libraries should be aware of CTML principles when creating all digital scholarship.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper is based on a literature review, not on research done specifically on this topic. It includes specific recommendations to improve an OER title as an example of what should be done on a broader scale.Practical implicationsLibrarians are educators should be aware of learning theory and particularly multimedia learning theory as learners often are not directly accessible to provide feedback. Design is critical to learning and this paper provides practical recommendations for application.Originality/valueOther papers have considered CTML as applied to online tutorials and instruction in general. Significantly less attention has been paid to applying CTML and cognitive learning theories outside of traditional instruction. This paper advocates expanding the use of cognitive learning theory and CTML to digital resources produced by the library.

WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA LEARNING? Suppose you open an online multimedia encyclopedia and click on the entry for “pumps.” Then, the computer presents a narrated animation describing how a pump works. Alternatively, suppose you are playing an educational science game on your computer in which you fly to a new planet and must design a plant that would survive there. An on-screen character guides you and explains how the characteristics of the roots, stem, and leaves relate to various environmental conditions. Both of these examples – multimedia lessons and agent-based simulation games – are forms of computer-based multimedia learning environments. They are multimedia learning environments because they involve words (e.g., printed or spoken words) and pictures (e.g., animation, video, illustrations, or photos). They are computer-based learning environments because they are presented via computer. Our goal in this chapter is to explore research-based principles for improving the instructional design of computer-based multimedia learning. We begin with the premise that research on multimedia learning should be theory based, educationally relevant, and scientifically rigorous. By calling for theory-based research, we mean that research on multimedia learning should be grounded in a cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In this chapter, we build on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2001, 2005a, 2005b; Mayer & Moreno, 2003), which is adapted from Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003; Sweller, 1999, 2005). By calling for educationally relevant research, we mean that research on multimedia learning should be concerned with authentic learning situations and materials.

A fundamental hypothesis underlying research on multimedia learning is that multimedia instructional messages that are designed in light of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that are not so designed. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning is based on three cognitive science principles of learning: the human information processing system includes dual channels for visual/pictorial and auditory/verbal processing (i.e., dual-channel assumption), each channel has a limited capacity for processing (i.e., limited-capacity assumption), and active learning entails carrying out a coordinated set of cognitive processes during learning (i.e., active processing assumption). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning specifies five cognitive processes in multimedia learning: selecting relevant words from the presented text or narration, selecting relevant images from the presented graphics, organizing the selected words into a coherent verbal representation, organizing selected images into a coherent pictorial representation, and integrating the pictorial and verbal representations and prior knowledge. Three demands on the learner’s cognitive capacity during learning are extraneous processing (which is not related to the instructional objective), essential processing (which is needed to mentally represent the essential material as presented), and generative processing (which is aimed at making sense of the material). Three instructional goals are to reduce extraneous processing (for extraneous overload situations), manage essential processing (for essential overload situations), and foster generative processing (for generative underuse situations). Multimedia instructional messages should be designed to guide appropriate cognitive processing during learning without overloading the learner’s cognitive system.

<p style="text-align: justify;">This study presented the effect of interactive mathematics (IM) software assisted-teaching on primary three learners' conceptual understanding and performance. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) supported the quasi-experimental design of this study drawing on IM software features that fit a multimedia tool for effective learning. This study used a sample of 138 lower primary learners. Learners’ test scores and examples of their work provided data to be analyzed. Learners' conceptual understanding was measured using the percentage of learners who performed a particular item and analyzed using sample learners' work while the overall performance was measured using the mean class scores. From the data analysis, IM-assisted teaching influenced conceptual understanding and performance based on a .05 p-value, the effect size of significance, and learning gains. The analysis of learners’ workings revealed different errors in addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication, which were remarkably reduced in the post-test by IM-supported teaching. This evidenced conceptual understanding development by IM-supported teaching. The study suggested the integration of IM in the Rwandan Competence-Based curriculum and its use as an instructional tool in teaching and learning mathematics at the primary level. Besides, it was recommended that Rwanda Education Board support teachers in developing basic computer skills to effectively create and monitor a multimedia learning environment for effective learning. Furthermore, further similar research would improve the literature about interactive technologies in supporting quality mathematics delivery and outcomes.</p>

Aim/Purpose: This study aims to analyze the cognitive load experienced by secondary school students in Biology within m-learning environments and its impact on learning performance. Background: Cognitive load has become a critical issue that schools need to address to ensure students can excel in their learning without being overwhelmed. While principles for reducing cognitive load have been extensively discussed in previous research, studies focusing on mobile learning (m-learning) for Biology among students in Malaysia remain limited. This study employed Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) to address this gap. By integrating four key principles—segmenting and pretraining, modality, redundancy, and seductive details—into m-learning tasks using the Successive Approximation Model (SAM1), this study aimed to reduce cognitive load and enhance students’ learning performance. Methodology: This study employed a quantitative approach using a randomized pre-test/post-test quasi-experimental design. Students were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (20 students) or a control group (18 students). The study was conducted over four weeks, comprising a three-week intervention period with a one-week interval. Statistical analyses, including independent t-tests, Mann-Whitney U tests, Quade ANCOVA, and Pearson correlation, were used to analyze the quantitative data. Qualitative feedback was analyzed using thematic analysis. Contribution: This study contributes by providing instructional design strategies that incorporate principles for reducing cognitive load in mobile learning for Biology. It also demonstrates how Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) can be effectively integrated. By examining the cognitive load experienced by secondary school students in m-learning environments, the study offers valuable insights for designing and implementing effective instructional strategies. Identifying the factors influencing cognitive load enables educators to develop targeted interventions that enhance learning experiences and optimize performance. Findings: The study indicated that the adoption of mobile learning tasks not only significantly reduced cognitive load but also corresponded to enhanced learning performance. Participants engaging in m-learning experienced lower cognitive load, which was positively associated with superior performance in learning tasks, emphasizing the beneficial impact of mobile learning on cognitive load management and academic achievement. Recommendations for Practitioners: Educators and instructional designers are encouraged to incorporate cognitive load principles into their instructional strategies and learning material design to enhance student performance. Policymakers should consider similar strategies to reduce the cognitive load for students in educational settings to improve learning outcomes. Recommendation for Researchers: Researchers are encouraged to replicate the design elements used in this study when developing mobile or online learning materials to reduce learners’ cognitive load and enhance their performance. They should also consider expanding this research to other topics, subjects, and educational levels to provide further insights and validate the effectiveness of these design elements across different contexts. Impact on Society: The findings of this study have significant implications for society, particularly in addressing mental health and stress issues among the younger generation. By identifying strategies to manage cognitive load and reduce stress in online learning environments, the study provides valuable insights for educators, parents, and policymakers. These strategies can help mitigate the adverse effects of cognitive overload, improve learning experiences, and promote better mental well-being. Additionally, the study’s recommendations can guide the development of more effective and supportive learning environments, contributing to overall societal well-being and academic success. Future Research: Future studies could explore cognitive load beyond the intrinsic and extraneous components focused on in this study, examining additional elements within the frameworks of cognitive load theory and multimedia learning. In addition to using the cognitive load questionnaire, exploring other measurement tools could ensure a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive load. Future research might also consider enriching mobile learning tasks by diversifying subject matter and conducting longitudinal cohort studies. Such studies could provide valuable insights into memory retention over extended periods, aiding in optimizing mobile learning frameworks and enhancing educational experiences.

This study explores the effectiveness of integrating multimedia learning tools, guided by Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML), in teaching Thirukkural to Form 2 students. Thirukkural, a timeless Tamil literary masterpiece, offers profound moral and ethical lessons. However, its classical language and intricate poetic style pose significant challenges for modern students. Recognizing these difficulties, this research adopts multimedia elements such as animation, visuals, and audio to bridge the gap between the ancient text and contemporary learners. The study aims to enhance not only students’ comprehension but also their ability to memorize and interpret Thirukkural meaningfully. Through a comparative analysis of pre-tests and post-tests, the findings reveal that multimedia-based instruction significantly improved students’ understanding, retention, and ability to express Thirukkural’s ideas accurately, while addressing common challenges like memorization difficulties, misinterpretation, and writing errors. By demonstrating the potential of multimedia learning, this research provides valuable insights into modernizing the teaching of classical literature. Thus, employing the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) in teaching Thirukkural proves to be highly effective for Form 2 students.

A fundamental hypothesis underlying research on multimedia learning is that multimedia instructional messages that are designed in light of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that are not. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) is based on three cognitive science principles of learning: the human information processing system includes dual channels for visual/pictorial and auditory/verbal processing (i.e., dual-channels assumption); each channel has limited capacity for processing (i.e., limited capacity assumption); and active learning entails carrying out a coordinated set of cognitive processes during learning (i.e., active processing assumption). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning specifies five cognitive processes in multimedia learning: selecting relevant words from the presented text or narration, selecting relevant images from the presented illustrations, organizing the selected words into a coherent verbal representation, organizing selected images into a coherent pictorial representation, and integrating the pictorial and verbal representations and prior knowledge. Multimedia instructional messages should be designed to prime these processes. The Case for Multimedia Learning What is the rationale for a theory of multimedia learning? People learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. This assertion – which can be called the multimedia principle – underlies much of the interest in multimedia learning. For thousands of years, words have been the major format for instruction – including spoken words, and within the last few hundred years, printed words.

The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) guides the creation of teaching materials that combine words and images, promoting meaningful learning. Despite its relevance, in a recent study [Neto et al., Rev. Bras. Ens. Fís. 45, 2023] we highlighted the absence of CTML in the physics teacher education curricula of Brazilian public universities. This raises a question: do physics teacher education students, even without formal contact with CTML, have prior knowledge aligned with its principles? This study investigated the existence and activation of prior knowledge aligned with five principles of CTML (Signaling, Spatial Contiguity, Segmentation, Multimedia, and Personalization) in a group of physics teacher education students. The quantitative, descriptive, and inferential research was conducted by proposing two types of tasks to participants: modifying teaching materials that were deliberately not aligned with the aforementioned CTML principles in order to improve them; and choosing between pairs of materials, one aligned and one not aligned with a given principle. The results indicate that, surprisingly, in both types of tasks, most participants demonstrated the existence and activation of prior knowledge aligned with all the aforementioned CTML principles. However, in the modification task, a significant portion of these participants did not demonstrate the existence with activation of prior knowledge aligned with the principles of Spatial Contiguity, Segmentation, and Personalization. From this, we conclude that although there are indications that these participants are capable of selecting materials aligned with these CTML principles, they still require specific training to modify or create instructional resources aligned with these principles, reinforcing the need to include CTML in physics teacher education curricula.

Using cognitive load theory and cognitivetheory of multimedia learning as a framework,we conducted two within-subject experimentswith 10 participants each in order toinvestigate (1) if the audiovisual presentationof verbal and pictorial learning materialswould lead to a higher demand on phonologicalcognitive capacities than the visual-onlypresentation of the same material, and (2) ifadding seductive background music to anaudiovisual information presentation wouldincrease the phonological cognitive load. Weemployed the dual-task methodology in order toachieve a direct measurement of cognitive loadin the phonological system. In bothexperiments, the modality effect could beconfirmed in the patterns of secondary taskperformance and in the primary learning task.

The research studied whether a physical multimedia designed in accordance with Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) enhances the learning performance of young children. Learning via touches addressed in digital technology has been increasingly emphasised in education nowadays. Hence, inquire into the efficacy of physical multimedia further extended with application of CTML potentially gives digital multimedia new contexts juxtaposing tactile quality and design principles. The research deployed multiple-group quasi-experimental factorial design contrasting physical multimedia and digital multimedia instructions. Children’s achievement score was set as dependent variables. Incisive explanation of physical multimedia from its initial idea and conception, the way of development, how CTML was applied, until empirical experiment is described in this paper. The results suggest that physical multimedia solidified subjects’ achievement scores more than digital multimedia.

In this chapter, I review the theoretical and empirical work on the use of animated pedagogical agents (APAs) in multimedia learning. After defining APAs and reviewing some of the existing applications, I present a cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) from which predictions for APA design are derived. More specifically, I contrast the potential beneficial and detrimental effects for using APAs in interactive multimedia environments. Then, I provide a critical analysis of the literature summarizing what we know about APAs and discuss the implications of this research for instructional design. Finally, I explore future directions for advancing our understanding about the role of APAs in multimedia learning. Introduction The goal of this chapter is to review the theoretical and empirical work on the use of animated software pedagogical agents (APAs) in multimedia environments and to propose directions for future research based on a cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML). Multimedia instructional environments are widely recognized to hold great potential for improving the way that people learn (Mayer, 2001). Examples of multimedia environments for science and math learning are abundant and usually combine a description of a complex system or procedure in written or spoken words along with corresponding illustrations or animations depicting the system. This format of instruction, when made concise and coherent, has been shown to be effective in fostering student understanding as indicated by performance on solving problem-solving transfer questions (Mayer & Moreno, 2003).

Background The modality and redundancy principles are well‐established within the cognitive theory of multimedia learning for their effectiveness in traditional media. However, previous studies applying these principles in virtual reality have shown contradictory results when immersive technologies are involved. Objectives This study investigates the effects of modality and redundancy principles from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning on cognitive load and learning outcomes in head‐mounted display augmented reality. Methods Using a between‐subjects experimental design, 104 male participants were randomly assigned to three conditions based on the way verbal instructions related to a T‐shirt folding procedure were presented (audio‐only, text‐only, text‐and‐audio). The presentation of the verbal instructions served as the manipulated variable; cognitive load levels and participants' performance were measured as outcome variables. Bayesian analyses were conducted to verify that there were no significant differences between the text‐and‐audio group and the audio‐only group, and a Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Model (PLS‐SEM) examined the relationship between the experimental condition, cognitive load levels, and participants' performance. Results and Conclusions Results support the validity of the modality principle in head‐mounted display augmented reality, showing that applying the modality principle significantly decreases intrinsic cognitive load and improves learning performances. The null hypothesis was supported by comparing audio‐only and text‐and‐audio conditions for both cognitive load and learning outcomes. These findings suggest that cognitive theory of multimedia learning principles work similarly in head‐mounted display augmented reality as in traditional media, and they offer valuable insights into multimedia learning in immersive augmented reality, extending our understanding of how these principles function in immersive technologies. Contradicting results using immersive technologies could be explained by considering task complexity and perceived intrinsic cognitive load; however, further studies testing different learning materials are necessary to support this hypothesis.

The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) offers insights on creating, organizing and presenting multimedia content in a way that can enhance the effectiveness of learners. While several studies have been conducted to verify these principles, not many have been done using content presented on low cost tablets. In this paper, we present our experimental study on the retention and understanding by children when learning content a) adheres to CTML and b) offered on low cost tablets. In our study we used Online Labs theory and videos and incorporated CTML principles into it. According to CTML principle it will maximize learning without causing cognitive overload. The study sample was 58 students from an English medium secondary education school from south India. The experiment involves a control and experiment group where the control group is tested on content which does not adhere to CTML and the experimental group is tested on content designed based on CTML. A pre-test is conducted to assess the level of pre-knowledge in the subject and a post-test is conducted to assess the retention and understanding by students. This suggests that tablet content incorporated with CTML principle can lead to a deeper understanding of the subject.

How can animation be used to promote learner understanding of scientific and mathematical explanations? In this review, we examine the role of animation in multimedia learning (including multimedia instructional messages and microworld games), present a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and summarize our program of research, which has yielded seven principles for the use of animation in multimedia instruction. These include the multimedia principle (present animation and narration rather than narration alone), spatial contiguity principle (present on-screen text near rather than far from corresponding animation), temporal contiguity principle (present corresponding animation and narration simultaneously rather than successively), coherence principle (exclude extraneous words, sounds, and video), modality principle (present animation and narration rather than animation and onscreen text), redundancy principle (present animation and narration rather than animation, narration, and on-screen text), and personalization principle (present words in conversational rather than formal style). Animation can promote learner understanding when used in ways that are consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning.

Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning