Initial Escape Distances of Wild Boars (Sus scrofa ussuricus) and the Attack Distances of Tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) on Prey

Subspecies Genetic Assignments of Worldwide Captive Tigers Increase Conservation Value of Captive Populations

Habitat accessibility and snares impact large cats and their prey in Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park, China

Simple SummaryThe Amur tiger has a status of being endangered on the world’s IUCN red list. The northwestern part of its range is situated in Russia and China, where tigers were killed by humans 50–70 years ago. To restore the tiger population within the historical range, firstly we estimated the condition of the environment there. We assessed suitability of habitats for the tiger’s prey species (wild ungulates) in the Lesser Khingan mountains (North China). For this we made modeling and calculations that were based on the information from satellite images and data we collected personally on the land surface during our expeditions. The resulting species distribution maps were used to design an ecological network. The habitat patches with the best quality (for tiger) were assigned as cores for the ecological network, which were connected by calculated green corridors. The recovery of the Amur tiger in habitats of China’s Lesser Khingan is confirmed possible. Natural green corridors for moving tigers are mainly located at the forests’ edges and characterized with high variability of the trees species. In this study, we describe three potential transboundary corridors and make recommendations to establish protected areas in the important tiger places. Moreover, it is necessary to implement habitat recovery activities for tiger key areas.The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris) has a status of being endangered on the world’s IUCN red list. The northwestern part of its range is situated in Russia and China, where tigers were exterminated by humans in the 1950–1970s. To restore tiger population within a historical range, an estimation of the habitat suitability is firstly needed. The Lesser Khingan mountains (Heilongjiang) was analyzed. Habitat types were mapped by satellite images analysis and field proven. The potential habitats of the main tiger’s prey species (wild boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), and red deer (Cervus elaphus xanthopygus) were also assessed. Maximum entropy and linear discriminant analysis methods were applied and compared for species distribution modeling (SDM). Species distribution maps were used to design an ecological network. The fragmentation of habitat patches was evaluated by spatial ecological metrics. The habitat patches with the best metrics were assigned as cores for the ecological network, which were connected by calculated corridors. The least cost distance method (based on distance to roads and settlements) was used. The recovery of the Amur tiger in habitats of China’s Lesser Khingan is shown to be possible. Types of habitats were calculated as natural corridors for moving tigers. They are mainly located at the forests’ edges and characterized with various canopy structures and high variability in the tree species composition. Three potential transboundary corridors are described: (a) foothills and low mountains of the northern Lesser Khingan; (b) connection between the southeast Lesser Khingan and the western part of the Wandashan mountain system; and (c) corridor within foothills and low mountains of the eastern part of Lesser Khingan. It is recommended to establish protected areas for the important tiger core habitats, and the main optimal ways for their migrations are described during the current investigation. Moreover, it is necessary to implement habitat recovery activities for key areas.

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) population in the southern Russian Far East declined by 90‐95% because of an African swine fever (ASF) epizootic that began in 2019. The loss of this primary prey species for Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), at a time when other main prey species were low in abundance and intensive habitat degradation and poaching were occurring, could affect population dynamics of tigers at the northern edge of their range. We assessed the impact of the ASF epizootic on the northernmost Amur tiger subpopulation by comparing population parameters before and after the ASF event. We assessed the number, types, and spatial distribution of conflicts between tigers and humans, timing of births, cub survival rates, tiger physical condition, behavior, and mortality. The average annual number of human–tiger conflicts increased more than 11‐fold after the arrival of ASF, with attacks on domestic animals being the predominant conflict. Tiger mortality and human‐mediated removal of tigers due to conflicts increased 3.3‐fold after ASF, and the total area in which conflicts occurred also increased. There was an increase in the proportion of emaciated individuals within the tiger population, particularly among young animals and males, and the proportion of individuals that preyed upon domestic animals also increased, a behavioral shift that expanded food resources for tigers but also heightened risks for both tigers and humans. To mitigate effects of the ASF outbreak and support the recovery of this Amur tiger population, we recommend a temporary ban on hunting of their primary prey species, additional protections for the wildlife sanctuaries within their range, and a large‐scale population survey.

Innate preference for native prey and personality implications in captive amur tigers

Theoretical and empirical research suggests that carnivore distributions are largely determined by prey availability. Availability depends not only on prey density but also on prey accessibility which is affected, in part, by the configuration of landscape attributes that make prey vulnerable to predation. Exactly how spatial variation in these processes shape patterns of carnivore habitat use at the home range scale remains poorly understood. We examined the influence of prey density (negative binomial resource selection function) and vulnerability (kill site resource selection function), mapped separately for each of three species of primary prey, on habitat use patterns within the home range for Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica in Far East Russia over 20 winters. We developed spatially‐explicit mixed linear regression models to assess these patterns and found that models with parameters for specific primary prey were more robust than models with composite parameters for all primary prey species. This emphasizes the importance of evaluating predation dynamics at a species‐specific level. We also found that Amur tigers used habitat within the home range where red deer Cervus elaphus and wild boar Sus scrofa were dense. These two species were clearly preferred by tigers accounting for 72% (201 of the 278) of the tiger kills detected. The effect of red deer density however, was modulated by the vulnerability of red deer in the landscape. Amur tigers tended to establish their home ranges on habitat where red deer were most vulnerable to predation, but would use habitat where red deer were dense in the peripheral regions of their home ranges. This suggests that tigers may utilize two separate strategies for acquiring prey. As the configuration of resource patches within the home range influences carnivore survival and reproduction, our analysis has implications for tiger conservation that extend beyond our improved understanding of tiger‐prey ecology.

Community attitudes towards large carnivores are of central importance to their conservation in human-dominated landscapes. In this study, we evaluate community attitudes and perceptions towards the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica), Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) and bears (Ursus thibetanus and Ursus arctos), as well as their prey species, namely sika deer (Cervus nippon), roe deer and wild boar (Sus scrofa), in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin province, northeast China. We surveyed 139 households and found that community members’ perceptions of large carnivores and their prey species were influenced by their predominant economic activities; their prior interactions with wildlife; their household income level; and whether they were either long-term residents of Yanbian or had migrated to the region from elsewhere in China. We recorded fairly neutral attitudes towards large carnivores among the communities we surveyed, but strongly negative attitudes were shown towards wild boar, particularly where respondents had lost agricultural products to crop raiding by wild boar. We recommend conservation stakeholders in northeast China utilise this finding to encourage support for large carnivore recovery and conservation by targeting messaging around the importance of the tiger as a key predator of wild boar in the ecosystem. Furthermore, our findings suggest that government provided compensation paid for cattle lost to large carnivore predation (notably, by tigers) may be helping to reduce animosity from cattle owners towards large carnivores. However, we also highlight that compensation for loss of livestock is therefore performing a useful role in mitigating human-wildlife conflict, that there are potentially unintended consequences of the current compensation program, for example it fails to dissuade livestock grazing in protected areas.

Wildlife behavior can be influenced by the deployment of sensory cues in a landscape, but different cues vary in the strength and duration of their effectiveness. We aimed to identify the most effective and cost-efficient countermeasures (sensory cues) to deter wild boar (Sus scrofa) entry and damage to cornfields in Hunchun, Jilin Province, China. These cornfields have experienced severe damage by wild boars during the critical 30-day period when this crop was ripening. From 2016 to 2021, different countermeasures were applied sequentially seeking to control this damage by using either (1) visual deterrents, i.e., solar blinkers of different colors; (2) auditory deterrents, i.e., playbacks of Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) calls, wild boar calls, or wolf (Canis lupus) calls; (3) tactile deterrents, i.e., electric fencing; (4) olfactory deterrents, i.e., Adult Amur tiger feces; or (5) various combined deterrents. We first evaluated the effectiveness of these broad categories, then performed a detailed analysis of the individual countermeasures to assess their specific deterrence effectiveness and duration. A cost-effective analysis was subsequently performed on the most effective countermeasures to evaluate the best option for practical applications. Across the broad categories of deterrents, the tactile group proved the most effective overall. For individual deterrents, the seven countermeasures showing significantly higher effectiveness than the others tested included the following: (1) 1000 mA red solar blinker (32.25 ± 4.22 days), (2) 1000 mA yellow solar blinker (29.67 ± 4.58 days), (3) 1000 mA green solar blinker (29.58 ± 5.60 days), (4) electric fencing with three wires (29.67 ± 0.58 days), (5) electric fencing with two wires (28.00 ± 2.00 days), (6) Adult Amur tiger calls for 15 s and wild boar calls for 15 s plus a combined 30 s plus a blank recording for 5 min (26.50 ± 2.38 days), and (7) Adult Amur tiger feces and calls (27.34 ± 2.94 days). Except for the Adult Amur tiger feces and calls, each countermeasure would cover most of the period over which control is necessary (30 days). The 1000 mA red solar blinker of achieved the highest repellency per cost ratio (0.31) at 30.29 IUS$/hm2 but showed reduced effectiveness over time. Although electric fencing with three wires offers longer deterrence, its cost-effectiveness ratio was lower (0.27) due to higher installation and maintenance costs at 319.69 IUS$/hm2. The 1000 mA red solar blinker offers a highly cost-effective short-term deterrent, while the electric fencing with three wires provides durable, long-term protection despite its higher costs. Balancing cost and duration can optimize wild boar deterrence strategies across different management needs.

Spatial population distribution dynamics of big cats and ungulates with seasonal and disturbance changes in temperate natural forest

This article researched the habitat suitability evaluation for Amur tigers in northeast China, which found the potential distribute area and provided decision-making for the establishment of Amur tiger nature reserve and the plan of getting back to nature of artificial breeding Amur tigers. The study area in northeast China included the three provinces of northeast China and the northeast region of Inner Mongolia. According to the principles of stability, independence, dominance, and comprehensiveness, the habitat suitability of Amur tigers in northeast China was assessed using the three aspects of vegetation, geographical environment, and human disturbance with vegetation type, vegetation coverage, elevation, gradient, slope direction, water source, residential areas, and main roads selected as evaluation variables. Data for each variable was collected quantitatively using geographic information systems （GIS） and remote sensing （RS）. Then the Amur tiger habitat suitability evaluation classification figure was obtained using the Analytic Hierarchy Process （AHP） method to determine the weight of each evaluation factor, and using the fuzzy mathematical model for the single factor weighted superposition. Afterward, the partitioning of areas was conducted. Results showed that human disturbance and vegetation were the main factors affecting the Amur tiger distribution. The study area was classified as most appropriate （21.97%）, second suitable （16.83%）, generally appropriate （22.02%）, and inappropriate distribution areas （39.18%）. Thus, the living space that could be appropriated for Amur tigers compared to the total potential habitat area in the Northeast China was considerable approximately 48.8%. ［Ch, 3 fig. 3 tab. 25 ref.］

Simple SummarySpatial distribution of wild boar damage risk is important and can be informative to wildlife habitat management. Hunchun is an important active area of Siberian tiger in China. The wild boar damage has brought barriers to the conservation and management of the Siberian tiger in this region. We predicted the spatial distribution of wild boar damage risk in Hunchun in terms of home range and feeding sites scales, and explored the spatial interaction between tiger habitats and the damage risk of wild boar. The results show the distance to the forest edge is an important factor affecting the wild boar damage, and 38.68% of the high-risk areas are overlapped with tiger habitats in Hunchun. Therefore, precise and differentiated management strategies should be adopted in the management of wild boar population.Hunchun, a typical area suffering wild boar (Sus scrofa) damage, is an important region for the Siberian Tiger (Panthera tigris) in China. By incorporating the maximum entropy model with 22 variables in the home range scale (12 variables) and in the feeding site scale (10 variables), we predicted wild boar damage risks in this area of China and analyzed how spatial factors influence damage risk. Damage risk was found to be high in areas close to the forest edge, areas with a higher forest cover and lower to medium deciduous forest proportion, low road density, and a medium river density and farmland proportion. The proportion of farmland which was identified as being in the high damage risk zone was 23.55%, of which 38.68% was within the habitat area of the Siberian Tiger. Finally, we propose wild boar damage prevention based on different management goals.

ABSTRACTPopulation density is a valuable metric used to manage wildlife populations. In the Russian Far East, managers use the Formozov‐ Malyushev‐Pereleshin (FMP) snow tracking method to estimate densities of ungulates for hunting management. The FMP also informs Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) conservation since estimates of prey density and biomass help inform conservation interventions. Yet, climate change and challenges with survey design call into question the reliability of the FMP. Camera traps offer a promising alternative, but they remain unexplored for monitoring tiger prey density. Over three years (2020‐2022), we used the FMP and camera‐based methods to estimate densities of four prey species of the Amur tiger in the Sikhote‐ Alin Biosphere Reserve, Russian Far East: wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus canadensis), roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), and sika deer (Cervus nippon). We compared FMP results from snow track survey routes either along trails, or along routes representative of the study area, and estimates derived from camera data using the random encounter model (REM), space‐to‐event model (STE), and time‐to‐event model (TTE). We found that density estimates from representative routes were typically lower than routes along trails and indicated different relative densities of prey. Density estimates from camera traps and representative track surveys were generally similar with no significant relative bias, but precision was poor for all methods. Differences between estimates were amplified when converted to prey biomass, particularly with larger, more abundant prey, which poses a challenge for their utility for tiger managers. We conclude camera traps can offer an alternative to snow track surveys when monitoring unmarked prey, but we caution that they require considerably more resources to implement. Tiger managers should be especially cautious when extrapolating density to estimates of prey biomass, and we encourage future research to develop more robust methods for doing so.

Effects of human disturbance on vegetation, prey and Amur tigers in Hunchun Nature Reserve, China

There have been few reports on the diversity and prevalence of parasitic fauna of the endangered Siberian tiger, which inhabits the territory of the Russian Far East. The present review attempts to summarize the information about the parasitic fauna of wild Siberian tigers, which includes 15 helminths and 3 protozoan species. The most prevalent parasitic species was found to be Toxocara cati, followed by Toxascaris leonina. Another commonly recorded Platyhelminth species is Paragonimus westermani, which causes a lethal infection of the lung parenchyma in Siberian tigers. However, the information about infections by this fluke in the Siberian tigers is scarce, although P. westermani infections pose a serious health hazard to tiger populations. The nematodes Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and Thominx aerophilus are found in Siberian tigers with an occurrence rate of 2.3% and 19%, respectively. The information on the parasitic infestations of captive populations of Siberian tigers is also presented along with the sources of infection and hazards for the wild tiger populations in their natural environment.

Variations in gut microbiota and fecal metabolic phenotype associated with Fenbendazole and Ivermectin Tablets by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and LC/MS-based metabolomics in Amur tiger