Inhibiting Informal Social Control: How Callous–Unemotional Traits and Body Shame Impede Bystander Intervention in Cyber Delinquency

Callous and unemotional (CU) traits might usefully subtype DSM-IV conduct disorder (CD). We investigate this hypothesis in a large, nationally representative sample of 5-16-year-olds. We also examine the characteristics of children with high CU traits but without CD. Data come from the 2004 British Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey including 7,977 children, 5,326 of whom were followed up after 3 years. DSM-IV diagnoses of psychiatric disorder were based on parent, teacher and child report. CU traits were assessed by parent report. Of the 2% of the sample who were diagnosed with DSM-IV CD, 46.1% were high on CU traits. In addition, 2.9% of the sample were high on CU traits without CD. Children with CD and CU traits showed more severe behavioural disturbance and were at substantially higher risk of CD diagnosis 3 years later. Children high on CU traits without CD showed evidence of disturbed functioning. Subtyping CD using CU traits identifies children with more severe and persistent psychopathology. Children with high CU traits but no CD diagnosis require further investigation.

PurposeThis study examined the specific language features that youth offenders express during autobiographical narratives, and tested whether offenders with high levels of callous and unemotional (CU) traits exhibit those language features known to be associated with psychopathic traits in adult offenders. These include increased instrumental and self‐oriented language, and decreased cohesiveness and fluency. A further aim was to test whether language‐related correlates of CU traits are consistent among offenders and non‐offenders.MethodsParticipants were 130 males participants aged 13‐to‐20 years, comprising offender and non‐offender samples. Data collection involved an interview‐based autobiographical narrative task, and self‐reports on the Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits. Using a corpus comparison method, narrative transcripts were coded with linguistic analysis software (Wmatrix) and compared for youth with high versus low levels of CU traits in both samples.ResultsCompared to youth offenders with low levels of CU traits, high‐CU offenders used more physiological need language (e.g. references to food, money), and used fewer cohesive conjunctions (e.g. ‘because’, ‘and’), indicating increased instrumental language, and decreased cohesiveness. Low‐CU offenders also used more discourse marker disfluencies than high‐CU offenders. No differences were found for social need language or other disfluencies, and no associations between CU traits and language were found among non‐offenders.ConclusionsYouth offenders with high levels of CU traits exhibit unique language features when expressing autobiographical narratives. Findings point to potential developmental differences in how these features present in adolescence versus adulthood. Furthermore, these features may be somewhat specific to youth whose CU traits co‐occur with delinquency.

The emergence of callous unemotional (CU) traits, and associated externalizing behaviors, is believed to reflect underlying dysfunction in the amygdala. Studies of adults with CU traits or psychopathy have linked characteristic patterns of amygdala dysfunction to reduced amygdala volume, but studies in youths have not thus far found evidence of similar amygdala volume reductions. The current study examined the association between CU traits and amygdala volume by modeling CU traits and externalizing behavior as independent continuous variables, and explored the relative contributions of callous, uncaring, and unemotional traits. CU traits and externalizing behavior problems were assessed in 148 youths using the Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits (ICU) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). For a subset of participants (n = 93), high-resolution T1-weighted images were collected and volume estimates for the amygdala were extracted. Analyses revealed that CU traits were associated with increased externalizing behaviors and decreased bilateral amygdala volume. These results were driven by the callous and uncaring sub-factors of CU traits, with unemotional traits unrelated to either externalizing behaviors or amygdala volume. Results persisted after accounting for covariation between CU traits and externalizing behaviors. Bootstrap mediation analyses indicated that CU traits mediated the relationship between reduced amygdala volume and externalizing severity. These findings provide evidence that callous-uncaring traits account for reduced amygdala volume among youths with conduct problems. These findings provide a framework for further investigation of abnormal amygdala development as a key causal pathway for the development of callous-uncaring traits and conduct problems.

Callous and unemotional (CU) traits in children with conduct problems have been indicated as precursors to adult psychopathy. The analysis of the sensitivity to rewards and punishment in this population may be useful in the identification of effective behavior modification programs and particularly the delineation of ineffective punishment procedures. Scores on the Child Psychopathy Scale, Inventory of Callous and Unemotional Traits, Contingency Response Rating Scale and the Sensitivity to Reward Sensitivity to Punishment – Children Revised scale were used to evaluate 20 children, aged 7-13, recruited from FIU’s Center for Children and Families. The sample comprised 14 males and 6 females displaying a range of psychopathic traits measured by the CPS, with scores from 9 to 46 (M = 28.45, SD = 10.73). Sensitivity to punishment was examined using a behavioral task in which children endured various amounts of either white noise (type I punishment) or time-out from positive reinforcement (type II punishment) in order to gain access to a demonstrated reinforcer. The sample was stratified on the basis of the magnitude of psychopathy scores, and sensitivity to rewards and punishment were evaluated using a Behavioral Activation / Behavioral Inhibition framework by examining task performance: the frequency and duration of punishment conditions selected, electrodermal activity (skin conductance response), and parent-reported measures of child sensitivity to reward and punishment. Results indicated that the magnitude of CU traits was directly proportional to hyposensitivity to punishment and hypersensitivity to reward. Children with elevated levels of CU traits elected to endure a greater frequency and duration type I punishment in order to maintain continued access to the reinforcer. Significant differences were not found between high- and low-psychopathy children in the selection of type II punishment. The findings indicate that although there may be a hyporeactivity to type I punishment in children with CU traits, the use of a type II punishment by the removal of a positive stimulus has demonstrated treatment efficacy. The difference in sensitivity to rewards and the types of effective punishment in children with CU traits may affect reinforcement based learning, leading to the ineffectiveness of traditional methods informing the development of social responses.

The social dynamics of boys with callous and unemotional traits: Uncooperative and proud of it

Bystander apathy has been a source of debate for decades. In the past half-century, psychologists developed theoretical frameworks to understand bystander activity, commonly referred to as bystander intervention models (BIMs). More recently, BIMs have been modified to facilitate initiatives to prevent various forms of online victimization. This chapter begins with a review of BIMs and recent applications of bystander intervention research to online environments. We also present several future directions for research along with applications for reducing technology-facilitated violence, including programming recommendations and theoretical development.

Child maltreatment is associated with disruptions in physiological arousal, emotion regulation, and defensive responses to cues of threat and distress, as well as increased risk for callous unemotional (CU) traits and externalizing behavior. Developmental models of CU traits have focused on biological and genetic risk factors that contribute to hypoarousal and antisocial behavior, but have focused less on environmental influences (Blair, 2004; Daversa, 2010; Hare, Frazell, & Cox, 1978; Krueger, 2000; Shirtcliff et al., 2009; Viding, Fontaine, & McCrory, 2012). The aim of the present investigation was to measure the independent and combined effects of child maltreatment and high CU traits on emotion-modulated startle response in children. Participants consisted of 132 low-income maltreated (n = 60) and nonmaltreated (n = 72) children between 8 and 12 years old who attended a summer camp program. Acoustic startle response (ASR) was elicited in response to a 110-dB 50-ms probe while children viewed a slideshow of pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant IAPS images. Maltreatment status was assessed through examination of Department of Human Services records. CU traits were measured using counselor reports from the Inventory of Callous and Unemotional Traits (Frick, 2004), and conduct problems were measured using counselor and child self-report. We found no significant differences in emotion-modulated startle in the overall sample. However, significant differences in ASR by maltreatment status, maltreatment subtype, and level of CU traits were apparent. Results indicated differential physiological responses for maltreated and nonmaltreated children based on CU traits, including a pathway of hypoarousal for nonmaltreated/high CU children that differed markedly from a more normative physiological trajectory for maltreated/high CU children. Further, we found heightened ASR for emotionally and physically neglected children with high CU and elevated antisocial behavior in these children. Results provide further support for differential trajectories by which experience and biology may influence the development of antisocial behavior in youth and highlight potential avenues for intervention.

Existing research on callous-unemotional (CU) traits and conduct problems primarily focuses on the concurrent or unidirectional associations between these constructs (i.e., from CU traits to CP), with less attention given to their dynamic interplay during middle childhood. It is possible that socialization agents, such as peers, play a significant role in shaping the dynamic relation between CU traits and conduct problems early in development. Additionally, prior studies have shown that both CU traits and conduct problems are associated with poorer peer functioning. Considering the social information processing theory, which emphasizes the impact of cognitive processes on emotions and behavior in youth, this study evaluated the moderating role of cognitive appraisals (i.e., rumination, self-blame, and other-blame) in the context of peer conflict on the bidirectional association between callous-unemotional (CU) traits and conduct problems over the course of 1 academic year. The sample included 349 third- through fifth-grade students (51% boys; 53.2% Hispanic/Latinx) and their homeroom teachers (n = 30). At Time 1, children reported on their cognitive appraisals in response to peer conflict. Teachers provided reports of children's CU traits and conduct problems at Time 1 and Time 2. Results indicated that conduct problems and other-blame uniquely predicted increases in CU traits over time. Further, high levels of self-blame and rumination exacerbated the prospective link from CU traits to subsequent conduct problems. These findings highlight the importance of addressing cognitive processes in prevention approaches aimed at reducing the risk of conduct problems and CU traits among children.

Affective polarisation, a growing hostility toward political outgroups, is a phenomenon rooted in social identity. Social identity threat—the expectation of experiencing some form of denigration based on a self‐relevant group identity—is thought to be a major driver of affective polarisation. Using a six‐wave longitudinal survey of 470 American liberals and conservatives, we investigated the impact of social identity threat on affective polarisation, perceived stress and self‐rated health. Using random intercept cross‐lagged panel models (RI‐CLPMs), we found that higher‐than‐usual identity threat predicted subsequent increases in affective polarisation ( β = 0.09, p = 0.025). There were no direct cross‐lagged effects of social identity threat on perceived stress or self‐rated health. However social identity threat was correlated at the between‐person level with stress ( r = 0.25, p = < 0.001) and health ( r = −0.17, p = 0.002). These findings replicate and expand on existing research by utilising a design suited for causal inference, to shed light on how identity threats and the expectation of prejudice influence intergroup relations and affective polarisation. While social identity threat plays a significant role in worsening affective polarisation, its effects on perceived stress and health are unclear. Further research is recommended to explore interventions aimed at mitigating social identity threats and polarisation, and further clarifying their potential health consequences.

This chapter provides an overview of social identity threat theory and research and discusses its implications for health. The chapter defines social identity threat as the situationally triggered concern that one is at risk of being stigmatized and provides a conceptual model of its antecedents and consequences. Social identity threat stems from mere awareness of the cultural representations that associate a self-relevant social identity with undesirable characteristics, coupled with situational cues that bring these self-relevant cultural biases to mind, and personal characteristics that moderate one’s susceptibility to such experiences. Social identity threat can lead to involuntary psychological and physiological processes that when experienced repeatedly can have detrimental consequences for health. This chapter describes strategies that people use to cope with social identity threat and discusses their implications for health, in addition to providing a description of psychological interventions that can attenuate the negative effects of social identity threat.

The integration of ethnic minority youth can only be successful if they are motivated to establish and maintain social relationships in important institutions such as school. At the same time, worries about negative stereotypes about one’s ethnic group can undermine ethnic minority students’ motivation to approach others. In the present study, we tested whether social identity threat predicts ethnic minority adolescents’ social approach motivation via reduced sense of belonging. We also examined whether multiple social identities (i.e., high endorsement of ethnic and national idenitiy) buffer against the negative effects of social identity threat. In a sample of 426 ethnic minority students from 36 9th -grade classes in Germany, social identity threat was indirectly related to social approach motivation via reduced sense of belonging to the school and class. The interplay of students’ ethnic and national identity moderated the relationship of social identity threat and sense of belonging. The relationship was particularly negative for students who endorsed either ethnic or national identity. However, it was less negative for students with integrated multiple social identities and non-significant for students who identified neither with the ethnic nor the national group. Results generalized for social approach motivation towards ethnic majority and minority classmates. These patterns were only found for social approach motivation in face-to-face contact situations, but not in online situations. We discuss these findings in light of the literature on social identity threat and multiple social identities. Practical implications include measures to foster students’ sense of belonging and to reduce social identity threat.

Social identity threat has been proposed as a key contributor to the underrepresentation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM), but little research has sought to pinpoint naturally occurring contextual predictors of identity threat for women already training or working in STEM. The focus of the present research was to examine how cues to an identity-safe culture predict more or less positive interactions between men and women in STEM in ways that may trigger or minimize women's daily experience of social identity threat. Specifically, we examined the role of inclusive organizational policies and/or greater female representation as 2 identity safety cues. In 2 daily diary studies of working engineers' experiences, and in an experiment with undergraduate engineering students, we tested a model whereby cues to identity safety predict lower social identity threat for women in STEM, as mediated by having (or expecting to have) more positive interactions with male (but not female) colleagues. Results across each study and an internal meta-analysis of overall effects revealed that female engineers' actual and anticipated daily experience of social identity threat was lower in organizations perceived to have more gender-inclusive policies (but was not consistently predicted by gender representation). The link between gender-inclusive policies and lower social identity threat was mediated by women having (or expecting to have) more positive conversations with male (and not female) colleagues, and was only found for women and not men. The implications for reducing social identity threat in naturalistic settings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Children and adolescents with callous unemotional (CU) traits are at risk of severe and persistent antisocial behavior. It is commonly assumed that these children are difficult to treat but it has been proposed that they may benefit from being involved in interventions that go beyond typical parent training programs. This systematic review sought to answer two previously unanswered questions: do interventions involving young people reduce levels of CU traits? Do CU traits predict the effectiveness of interventions for antisocial behavior involving young people? Studies were included that adopted an randomized controlled trial, controlled or open trial design and that had examined whether treatment was related to reductions in CU traits or whether CU traits predicted or moderated treatment effectiveness. Treatments used a range of approaches, including behavioral therapy, emotion recognition training, and multimodal interventions. 4/7 studies reported reductions in CU traits following treatment. There was a mixed pattern of findings in 15 studies that examined whether CU traits predicted treatment outcomes following interventions for antisocial behavior. In 7/15 studies, CU traits were associated with worse outcomes, although three of these studies did not provide data on baseline antisocial behavior, making it difficult to evaluate whether children with high CU traits had shown improvements relative to their own behavioral baseline, despite having the worst behavioral outcomes overall. CU traits did not predict outcomes in 7/15 studies. Finally, a single study reported that CU traits predicted an overall increased response to treatment. Overall, the evidence supports the idea that children with CU traits do show reductions in both their CU traits and their antisocial behavior, but typically begin treatment with poorer premorbid functioning and can still end with higher levels of antisocial behavior. However, there is considerable scope to build on the current evidence base.

Research has shown that social identity threat can have a broad variety of negative consequences. However, not much is known about the consequences of social identity threat on interpersonal relationships. In the present research, we hypothesize that experiencing social identity threat decreases people's social approach motivation toward other people related to the stereotyped domain. Specifically, we manipulated social identity threat by activating negative stereotypes about women in math. As math is an important aspect of the academic self-concept, female university students who are confronted with a negative math stereotype should experience threat toward their identity as university students. We then tested whether this threat affected female students' motivation to approach other university students and whether the effect was mediated by a reduced sense of belonging to the university. Data from 478 participants, assessed in three experimental (Study 1a: N = 79, Study 1b: N = 164, Study 2: N = 100) and one correlational study (Study 3: N = 135), mainly supported these hypotheses. We conclude that social identity threat can be detrimental to the quality of people's social lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

This on-line study evaluated whether the presence of callous and unemotional (CU) traits in a written case description affects practitioners’ countertransference (CT), appraisal of both global and specific client traits and other therapy-relevant variables. One hundred and fifty three mental health practitioners were randomly assigned to one of two groups: One group read a hypothetical case description of a client who did not present with CU traits (NCU Group) while the other group read the same case description as the NCU Group, but with the addition of CU traits (CU Group). The results demonstrated that the presence of CU traits not only was related to CT, but also to how much time and energy practitioners invested in treatment, their likelihood of referral, and their anticipated therapy effectiveness. Consistent with the halo effect, the global assessment of CU traits, and likability was also related to practitioners’ assessment of a more specific client trait. Last, practitioners indicated that the “likability” of likable clients had more influence on their assessment of clients and ratings of therapy-relevant variables than the “likability” of unlikable clients. Although practitioners who work with CU trait clients strive to effect change and reduce problematic behavior, they are confronted with the formidable task of forging an alliance with clients who are typically unresponsive to and disengaged from treatment. It is hoped that this study will prompt practitioners to examine and learn from their emotional responses to these difficult clients and expand their knowledge of CU trait clients so that they might better understand CU trait clients’ suffering, cultivate empathy, and effectively treat their pain.