Influence of Visual and Action Experiences on Sensorimotor Simulation During Action Verb Processing: The Roles of Motor Perspective and Personal Pronouns.

Early lexico-semantic modulation of motor related areas during action and non-action verb processing

Evidence is increasing that brain areas that are responsible for action planning and execution are activated during the information processing of action-related verbs (e.g., pick or kick). To obtain further evidence, we conducted three experiments to see if constraining arm posture, which could disturb the motor planning and imagery for that arm, would lead to delayed judgment of verbs referring to arm actions. In all experiments, native Japanese speakers judged as quickly as possible whether the presented object and the verb would be compatible (e.g., ball–throw) or not (e.g., ball–pour). Constrained arm posture was introduced to the task by asking participants to keep both hands behind their back. Two types of verbs were used: manual action verbs (i.e., verbs referring to actions performed on an object by a human hand) and non-manual action verbs. In contrast to our hypothesis that constrained arm posture would affect only the information processing of manual action verbs, the results showed delayed processing of both manual action and non-manual action verbs when the arm posture was constrained. The effect of constrained arm posture was observed even when participants responded with their voice, suggesting that the delayed judgment was not simply due to the difficulty of responding with the hand (i.e., basic motor interference). We discussed why, contrary to our hypothesis, constrained arm posture resulted in delayed CRTs regardless of the “manipulability” as symbolized by the verbs.

The processing of sensory-motor aspect of word's meaning, and its difference between nouns and verbs, is the main topic of neurolinguistic research. The present study aimed to examine the lexical-semantic processing of Persian non-action nouns and action verbs. The possible effects of semantic correlates on noun/verb dissociation were evaluated without morphological confound. A total of 62 neurologically intact Persian speakers responded to a computerized semantic similarity judgment task, including 34 triplets of non-action nouns and 34 triplets of action verbs by pressing a key. Response Time (RT) and percentage error were considered as indirect measures of lexical-semantic encoding efficiency. We also assessed the latency of hand movement execution with no linguistic demand. The results showed that action verbs elicited more errors and had slower RT compared with object nouns. Mixed ANOVA revealed that the observed noun/verb distinction was not affected by demographic factors. These results provided evidence that the lexical-semantic encoding of Persian action verbs, compared to non-action nouns, requires more support from cognitive sources‏ ‏during the processing of the motor‏-‏related semantic feature. The possible accounts for the different processing of action verbs in terms of semantic view are suggested.

The influence of rTMS over prefrontal and motor areas in a morphological task: Grammatical vs. semantic effects

Objective To explore the effect of action verb processing on the excitability of the motor cortex and any effect on the upper limb motor function of stroke survivors. Methods Experiment 1: The motor evoked potential by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS-MEP) was measured while 18 healthy subjects were processing concrete action verbs or abstract verbs. Experiment 2: Eight hemiplegic stroke survivors were asked to read silently text describing concrete hand actions, and then repeat and explain the meaning of the action verbs used in the text. This was repeated for 30 minutes per day, 5 days per week for 3 weeks. In the 2nd week the same training was conducted except that the text was about abstract verbs. The modified Ashworth scale (MAS), Fugl-Meyer assessment (FMA), the Hong Kong version of the functional test for a hemiplegic upper extremity (FTHUE-HK) and a simple test for evaluating hand function (STEF) were used to assess upper limb motor function before and after the training each week. Results Experiment 1: Processing the concrete action verbs induced significantly greater MEP than processing the abstract verbs. Experiment 2: The average FMA and STEF ratings improved significantly after the training each week. Training with the concrete action verbs resulted in significantly better FMA and STEF scores than with the abstract verbs. The average MAS score increased significantly week by week. There was significantly more improvement in the average FTHUE-HK rating after the 1st and 3rd week of training than after the 2nd week. Conclusion Action verb processing induces greater motor cortex excitation than abstract verb processing among healthy subjects and better improves the upper limb motor function of stroke survivors. Key words: Embodied cognition; Action verb processing; Stroke; Hemiplegia; Transcranial magne-tic stimulation

Parkinson’s disease disrupts both automatic and controlled processing of action verbs

Recent theories propose a flexible recruitment of sensory and motor brain regions during conceptual processing depending on context and task. The present functional magnetic resonance imaging study investigated the influence of context and task on conceptual processing of action and sound verbs. Participants first performed an explicit semantic context decision task, in which action and sound verbs were presented together with a context noun. The same verbs were repeatedly presented in a subsequent implicit lexical decision task together with new action and sound verbs. Thereafter, motor and acoustic localizer tasks were administered to identify brain regions involved in perception and action. During the explicit task, we found differential activations to action and sound verbs near corresponding sensorimotor brain regions. During the implicit lexical decision task, differences between action and sound verbs were absent. However, feature-specific repetition effects were observed near corresponding sensorimotor brain regions. The present results suggest flexible conceptual representations depending on context and task. Feature-specific effects were observed only near, but not within corresponding sensorimotor brain regions, as defined by the localizer tasks. Our results therefore only provide limited evidence in favor of grounded cognition theories assuming a close link between the conceptual and the sensorimotor systems.

The nature of semantic representation has long been a key question in linguistic research. The Embodied Cognition theory challenges the traditional view of language representation, stating that semantic information stems from the sensory-motor cortex, which is activated automatically during semantic processing. However, most of the evidence comes from monolingual studies; it remains unclear whether second-language (L2) comprehension involves different semantic representations or mirrors the pattern seen in first-language (L1) processing. Therefore, the present study investigated the role of the sensory-motor system in language processing via making Electroencephalography (EEG) recordings during the processing of L1 and L2 action verbs. The results showed that L1 (Chinese) action verbs generated higher mu-event-related desynchronization (ERD) than L1 abstract verbs in the early processing stage (250 ms after verb presentation), and the same phenomenon was also observed for L2 (English). The results also indicated that language modulated the processing of action verbs, with L1 action verbs eliciting stronger ERD than L2 action verbs. These results demonstrate that the sensory-motor cortex plays a crucial role in comprehending both L1 and L2 action verbs.

Consistent with the embodied view of cognition, several studies have shown a link between action and the processing of action verbs. However, it is largely unknown how action properties can influence semantic activation during word processing. On the basis of the observation of point-light display (PLDs), the present study addressed this issue. Through four experiments, we assessed whether kinematics and orientation, which are two crucial characteristics of human action, can influence the link between action and language. Participants performed a semantic decision task involving action and nonaction verbs after seeing a PLD representing either a biological or a nonbiological human movement, the kinematics (Experiments 1 and 2) or orientation (Experiment 3) of which was modified. Experiment 1 showed that important modifications to the kinematics of actions have a direct influence on the link between action and language. Experiment 2 confirmed this effect and showed that the effect is somatotopic because only modifications to the relevant part of actions affected the link between action and language. In contrast, Experiment 3 showed that modifying the orientation did not disturb the influence of an action on language probably due to the use of a mental rotation strategy. Experiment 4 confirmed this view by demonstrating the use of mental rotation when participants have to recognize rotated point-light actions. These outcomes shed light on how action properties can influence action verbs processing, a crucial step to better understanding the link between action and language. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Language for action: Motor resonance during the processing of human and robotic voices

Processing of nouns and action verbs can be differentially compromised following lesions to posterior and anterior/motor brain regions, respectively. However, little is known about how these deficits progress in the course of neurodegeneration. To address this issue, we assessed productive lexical skills in a patient with posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) at two different stages of his pathology. On both occasions, he underwent a structural brain imaging protocol and completed semantic fluency tasks requiring retrieval of animals (nouns) and actions (verbs). Imaging results were compared with those of controls via voxel-based morphometry (VBM), whereas fluency performance was compared to age-matched norms through Crawford’s t-tests. In the first assessment, the patient exhibited atrophy of more posterior regions supporting multimodal semantics (medial temporal and lingual gyri), together with a selective deficit in noun fluency. Then, by the second assessment, the patient’s atrophy had progressed mainly toward fronto-motor regions (rolandic operculum, inferior and superior frontal gyri) and subcortical motor hubs (cerebellum, thalamus), and his fluency impairments had extended to action verbs. These results offer unprecedented evidence of the specificity of the pathways related to noun and action-verb impairments in the course of neurodegeneration, highlighting the latter’s critical dependence on damage to regions supporting motor functions, as opposed to multimodal semantic processes.

Objective: Brain trauma evidences suggest that the two grammatical categories of noun and verb are processed in different regions of the brain due to differences in the complexity of grammatical and semantic information processing. Studies have shown that the verbs belonging to different semantic categories lead to neural activity in different areas of the brain, and action verb processing is related to the activity of motor and pre-motor areas of the brain. Researchers use different tasks to evaluate action verb processing. The most common tasks are action naming and action fluency tasks. Although these types of tasks are sensitive to deficits in action verb processing, they do not specify the nature of the injury. To understand whether dysfunction in action verb processing is due to difficulty in lexical access or specific impairment in semantic processing, it is necessary to design a specific test to evaluate lexical-semantic processing. Semantic Similarity Judgment (SSJ) test targets the lexical-semantic encoding at a deep and controlled processing level. The purpose of the present study was to develop a SSJ test for Persian action verbs and non-action nouns and determine its content validity. Materials & Methods: In this methodological study, 70 Persian action concrete verbs and 80 Persian non-action concrete nouns were first selected. For each word, a semantically related word based on functional, physical, categorical features and similarity in action was selected according to the opinion of 4 experts (3 speech-language pathologists and one linguist) using a 7-point scale. For semantic similarity rating, only the pairs of words with a high semantic similarity score (5 to 7) remained and the rest were omitted. Then, for each pair of semantically related words, a semantically unrelated word was selected. After determining content validity qualitatively by three experts and removing inappropriate items, for matching the two sets of nouns and verbs, the lexical and psycholinguistic characteristics of the remaining words (207 nouns and 156 verbs) including frequency, number of syllables, phonemes, letters, phonological and orthographic neighbors, action association, imageability, familiarity and age of acquisition were extracted by 18 volunteers (13 speech-language pathologists and linguists and 5 parents selected by a convenience sampling method) based on a 7-point scale. The verbs with low action associations and the nouns with high action association were removed and then, the two sets of words were matched for other lexical and psycholinguistic characteristics. Finally, 34 triples of verbs with high action association and 34 triples of nouns with low action association were selected. In both noun and verb sets, the words were chosen in such a way that, in order to judge, the semantic features of the words need to be carefully considered. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics and independent t-test.

Differential effects of age-of-acquisition for concrete nouns and action verbs: Evidence for partly distinct representations?

Regarding the embodiment of language processing in adults, there is evidence of a close connection between sensorimotor brain areas and brain areas relevant to the processing of action verbs. This thesis is hotly debated and has therefore been thoroughly studied in adults. However, there are still questions concerning its development in children. The present study deals with the processing of action verbs in concrete and abstract sentences in 60 eleven-year-olds using a decision time paradigm. Sixty-five children mirrored arm movements or sat still and rated the semantic plausibility of sentences. The data of the current study suggest that eleven-year-olds are likely to misunderstand the meaning of action verbs in abstract contexts. Their decision times were faster and their error rates for action verbs in concrete sentences were lower. However, the gender of the children had a significant influence on the decision time and the number of errors, especially when processing abstract sentences. Females were more likely to benefit from an arm movement before the decision, while males were better if they sat still beforehand. Overall, children made quite a few errors when assessing the plausibility of sentences, but the female participants more often gave plausibility assessments that deviated from our expectations, especially when processing abstract sentences. It can be assumed that the embodiment of language processing plays some role in 11-year-old children, but is not yet as mature as it is in adults. Especially with regard to the processing of abstract language, the embodied system still has to change and mature in the course of child development.

This study aims to investigate action language processing abilities in Parkinson's disease (PD) compared to healthy controls (HCs), specifically examining whether the involvement of motor systems is influenced by task context. By focusing on implicit versus explicit task demands, the study evaluates how semantic processing differs in PD and whether these differences align with a flexible embodied cognition framework. The study analyzed the performance of participants on two tasks: an explicit task (semantic judgment task, SJ) and an implicit task (letter detection task, LD). PD outpatients (n = 31, mean age 64.58 years) referred to the Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit of ICS Maugeri Hermitage were enrolled, along with a group of healthy controls (n = 31, mean age 64.19 years). Performance was measured through reaction times (RTs) and accuracy scores (Acc) during the processing of action verbs and abstract verbs. PD patients exhibited slower RTs and lower accuracy when processing action verbs compared to abstract verbs, but only during the SJ task. Slower RTs in the SJ task were predicted by language and executive functioning (semantic fluency) and disease progression (Hoehn and Yahr stages) for both action and abstract verbs. In the LD task, slower RTs were predicted by executive functioning for action verbs and attention (measured by Trail Making Test Part B and Stroop task) for abstract verbs. The findings suggest a context-dependent involvement of the motor system in action language processing, supporting a flexible, embodied approach to conceptual semantic processing rather than an automatic one.