Infectivity of gastrointestinal nematode parasites of sika deer (Cervus nippon) for calves and lambs.

The behaviour of sika and red deer during the rutting season is highly variable in relation to vocalization, habitat preference during the rut, and onset and termination of rutting. The red deer is a native species in Central Europe, but the areas where it lives in sympatry with the introduced sika deer have been increasing in the last three decades. Such situation can be found in the Doupovské hory Mts., where sika deer has been intensively spreading. Hybridization between the two species and changes in behaviour are the most important problems. In this study we prove the shift in the rutting period shown by both species. To evaluate the shift in the rutting season, we used a very extensive long-term data set on deer shot within the Military Training Area. These changes occur very slowly, however, and are very difficult to monitor and evaluate in the wild. Based on our results, the timing of the rutting season has converged at the mean rate of 0.62 day per year (rutting season starts later in the red deer and earlier in the sika deer).  

The sika deer ( Cervus nippon ) are considered to be an invasive species in Europe. The main problem that the European free-living sika deer pose is damage they do to forests as well as hybridisation with the local red deer. The aim of this study was to analyse the genetic diversity of the sika deer and the red deer in Lithuania, and to determine the hybridization, which might be present in red deer population from the past release of sika deer into the nature. Tissue samples were collected from 30 sika deer individuals from enclosures, and 33 wild-living red deer. Samples were genotyped using seven microsatellite (STR) loci; genetic diversity indices were calculated and individuals were classified using Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA); the genetic structure of sika deer and red deer was investigated according to Bayesian clustering method using STRUCTURE software. The STR loci were highly polymorphic with up to 17 alleles per locus, and with an average heterozygosity Ho=0.695 and Ho=0.626 for sika deer and red deer respectively. Overall inbreeding coefficient (F IS ) values are 0.004 and 0.127 in sika and red deer respectively. According to the PCoA sika deer samples differ from those of red deer; however, few red deer individuals mix with sika deer. These animals were attributed to red deer according to their phenotype; however according to their genotype they are closer to sika deer. Thus, it can be concluded that wild red deer in Lithuania may hybridise with sika deer.

Accurate identification of deer-derived components is significant in food and drug authenticity. Over the years, several methods have been developed to authenticate these products; however, identifying whether female deer products are hybrids is challenging. In this study, the zinc finger protein X-linked (ZFX) gene sequences of sika deer (Cervus nippon), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and their hybrid offspring were amplified and sequenced, the X221 and X428 species-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) loci were verified, and a tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system (T-ARMS–PCR) assay was developed to identify the parent-of-origin of female sika deer, red deer, and their hybrid deer. The T-ARMS–PCR developed based on the X221 locus could identify sika deer, red deer, and their hybrid offspring according to the presence or absence of PCR product sizes of 486 bp, 352 bp, and 179 bp, respectively, just as X428 locus could identify sika deer, red deer, and their hybrid offspring according to the presence or absence of PCR product sizes of 549 bp, 213 bp, and 383 bp, respectively. Forty products labeled deer-derived ingredients randomly purchased were tested using this assay, and the results showed that the identification results based on the two SNP loci were utterly consistent with the actual sources. In addition, this method was found to be accurate, simple, convenient, and with high specificity, thus providing an essential technical reference for deer product species identification. It is also an important supplement to the identification methods of the original ingredients of existing deer products.Graphical abstract

Sika deer (Cervus nippon Temminck) from Japan were introduced into Great Britain and Ireland first in 1860, and, for a time, were much sought after by owners of deer parks. Later, they were introduced or allowed to escape into various parts of the country, and feral populations have become established in Scotland, England and Ireland.Hybridization between Sika and Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) has occurred frequently in deer parks but has been reported only recently from feral and wild stocks.In part of north‐west England, there have been reports of hybrids from time to time ever since the 1920s, but these have become commonplace only recently. Since the Red deer inhabiting other parts of the region are all of the native race (Cervus elaphus scolicus Lönnberg) and no other population of this race exists elsewhere in England, work was begun to assess the threat to the survival of both the race and the species posed by Sika deer and, more particularly, by the hybrids on Cartmel Fell.Using multivariate methods of analysis on a range of skull measurements (see page 556) obtained from samples of both species and their hybrids, an attempt was made to find some means of distinguishing the hybrids from the species irrespective of the extent to which introgression had occurred. This was largely successful using canonical variate analysis, but only when the sets of data used to construct the basic matrix were both homogeneous and biologically relevant, i.e. of the same age and sex, and where the samples were obtained from the races involved in the hybridization. The present classification of the subspecies of Sika deer received little support from this study. Many of the subspecies as described in the literature were found to be indistinguishable from some of the hybrids, which suggests that some revision may be necessary.

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) and sika deer (C. nippon) are two important and endangered herbivores in northeast China. It is unclear whether potential dietary competition exists between them when they are sympatric in winter. We used micro-histological analysis of faecal samples to determine diet composition and dietary overlap of the red deer and sika deer in northeast China. We found that red deer had a more diverse diet than sika deer, and consumed more shrubs throughout the winter. Euonymus spp. was the most stable and principal food item for both red and sika deers in winter, while the proportions of the three other major food species (Acer spp., Abies spp. and Pinus spp.) were significantly different between the deer species as well as between different winter periods. The proportions of coniferous browse of sika deer increased significantly from early to late winter (20.9 vs 45.4%), while for red deer they remained stable (18.3 vs 23.7%). Crude protein in the red and sika deer's diet was over 7.5% of dry matter in whole winter. Red and sika deer take different strategies to meet their requirements for crude protein. Red deer consumed in winter consistently more shrubs to obtain crude protein and to minimize the intake of tannins, whereas sika deer increased coniferous browse consumption in late winter to meet the crude protein requirement regardless of higher intake of tannin. Our results indicate a high degree of dietary overlap between red and sika deers (range 0.88–0.95), and suggest its further increase in late winter.

Genetic structure of, and hybridisation between, red ( Cervus elaphus) and sika ( Cervus nippon) deer in Ireland

Nematodes Ashworthius sidemi are typical parasites of Asiatic cervids, mostly sika deer (Cervus nippon). Migrating red deer have probably introduced this parasite to the area of Poland from neighbouring countries. The aim of the study was to determine prevalence and intensity of infection of red deer and roe deer from the Lower Silesian Wilderness with A. sidemi after one year from previous studies and to examine the influence of these parasites on other species of gastrointestinal nematodes. 31 abomasa of red deer and 3 abomasa of roe deer from Forest Dictrict of Ruszów have been examined on the presence of parasites. In comparison with previous studies, red deer showed significant, over triple increase of prevalence of A. sidemi and over fivefold increase of mean intensity of infection. Maximum intensity of infection has increased over 24 times. These results indicate on dynamic spread of this new aswortiosis foci. Apart from previously registered parasite species, four new nematodes have been found in examined red deer and roe deer during this year studies. Red deer have been infected with Spiculopteragia assymmetrica, typical for fallow deer and Haemonchus placei - typical for bovine, whereas roe deer have been infected with Trichostrongylus axei and Trichostrongylus capricola, parasites of sheep, goats and bovine. Prevalence of red deer infection with nematodes S. boehmi and Ostertagia leptospicularis was lower than two years ago while prevalence of infection with S. mathevossiani and O. kolchida was higher. Intensity of infection with these nematodes has increased.

Eurasian deer are characterized by the extraordinary diversity of their vocal repertoires. Male sexual calls range from roars with relatively low fundamental frequency (hereafter f o) in red deer Cervus elaphus, to moans with extremely high f o in sika deer Cervus nippon, and almost infrasonic groans with exceptionally low f o in fallow deer Dama dama. Moreover, while both red and fallow males are capable of lowering their formant frequencies during their calls, sika males appear to lack this ability. Female contact calls are also characterized by relatively less pronounced, yet strong interspecific differences. The aim of this study is to examine the anatomical bases of these inter‐specific and inter‐sexual differences by identifying if the acoustic variation is reflected in corresponding anatomical variation. To do this, we investigated the vocal anatomy of male and female specimens of each of these three species. Across species and sexes, we find that the observed acoustic variability is indeed related to expected corresponding anatomical differences, based on the source‐filter theory of vocal production. At the source level, low f o is associated with larger vocal folds, whereas high f o is associated with smaller vocal folds: sika deer have the smallest vocal folds and male fallow deer the largest. Red and sika deer vocal folds do not appear to be sexually dimorphic, while fallow deer exhibit strong sexual dimorphism (after correcting for body size differences). At the filter level, the variability in formants is related to the configuration of the vocal tract: in fallow and red deer, both sexes have evolved a permanently descended larynx (with a resting position of the larynx much lower in males than in females). Both sexes also have the potential for momentary, call‐synchronous vocal tract elongation, again more pronounced in males than in females. In contrast, the resting position of the larynx is high in both sexes of sika deer and the potential for further active vocal tract elongation is virtually absent in both sexes. Anatomical evidence suggests an evolutionary reversal in larynx position within sika deer, that is, a secondary larynx ascent. Together, our observations confirm that the observed diversity of vocal behaviour in polygynous deer is supported by strong anatomical differences, highlighting the importance of anatomical specializations in shaping mammalian vocal repertoires. Sexual selection is discussed as a potential evolutionary driver of the observed vocal diversity and sexual dimorphisms.

Calicophoron daubneyi (Paramphistomidae) in deer of the Šumava National Park, Czech Republic – Consequence of prevalent rumen fluke infection in cattle

We compared the impacts on forest regeneration of introduced sika (Cervus nippon) and red (Cervus elaphus) deer in New Zealand. Plot data were used to compare mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides) regeneration between a region with sika deer, and four regions without sika deer. All regions surveyed had red deer present. In the region where sika deer had been present for more than a decade, there was evidence of poor mountain beech seedling regeneration. In the four regions without sika deer, there was evidence of a strong regenerative response at stands with low occupancy by trees. When compared to larger deer species, sika deer have a digestive morphology allowing greater dietary versatility, which may result in them impeding forest regeneration where red deer do not. In contrast to mountain beech, some small-leaved shrub species may have been competitively advantaged by intensive browsing from sika deer. This is contra to a current view that small-leaved shrub species with interlacing branches were able to tolerate browsing from extinct ratite birds, but not introduced deer. Sika deer have been introduced into countries where other deer species are indigenous, such as Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, Czech Republic, Ireland and the United States of America. Because of their dietary advantage, sika deer may have a greater potential to impede forest regeneration and competitively exclude larger deer species, particularly at low basal area sites where impacts on tree regeneration are likely to be greatest.

Red and sika deer in the British Isles, current management issues and management policy

Authenticity control of game meat products – A single method to detect and quantify adulteration of fallow deer (Dama dama), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon) by real-time PCR

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and sika deer (C. nippon) are sympatric in certain regions in northeast China, and may have different strategies for obtaining food resources. We studied winter forage selection of sympatric red and sika deer based on their bite diameter and browse intensity in northeast China. The principal winter food items of red and sika deer were Euonymus spp. and Acer spp., and both deer showed strong selectivity for E. verrucosus, E. alatus and Populus davidiana (EI>0.85) in spite of their low availability. Red and sika deer exhibited varying bite diameters and browse intensity for different forage plant species between early and late winter. Overall, the interaction effect of season and deer species on bite diameter and browse intensity indicated that two sympatric deer used different foraging strategies to increase food intake. In late winter, sika deer may have tended to increase bite diameter to fulfill a relatively constant food intake and potential nutritional requirement, while red deer may have tended to increase browse intensity to maintain a higher forage intake. Moreover, the interaction effect of plant and deer species on bite diameter and browse intensity indicated that both deer species tend to change their bite diameter and browse intensity particularly on Euonymus spp. and Acer spp., while red and sika deer have a reversal interaction effect on coniferous browse. These patterns of forage selection in bite diameter and browse intensity of sympatric deer may reflect short-term foraging decisions of sympatric herbivores that share similar food resources.

A Preliminary Survey of British Deer for Antibody to Some Virus Diseases of Farm Animals

In this article we describe the structure of a hybrid zone in Argyll, Scotland, between native red deer (Cervus elaphus) and introduced Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon), on the basis of a genetic analysis using 11 microsatellite markers and mitochondrial DNA. In contrast to the findings of a previous study of the same population, we conclude that the deer fall into two distinct genetic classes, corresponding to either a sika-like or red-like phenotype. Introgression is rare at any one locus, but where the taxa overlap up to 40% of deer carry apparently introgressed alleles. While most putative hybrids are heterozygous at only one locus, there are rare multiple heterozygotes, reflecting significant linkage disequilibrium within both sika- and red-like populations. The rate of backcrossing into the sika population is estimated as H = 0.002 per generation and into red, H = 0.001 per generation. On the basis of historical evidence that red deer entered Kintyre only recently, a diffusion model evaluated by maximum likelihood shows that sika have increased at approximately 9.2% yr-1 from low frequency and disperse at a rate of approximately 3.7 km yr-1. Introgression into the red-like population is greater in the south, while introgression into sika varies little along the transect. For both sika- and red-like populations, the degree of introgression is 30-40% of that predicted from the rates of current hybridization inferred from linkage disequilibria; however, in neither case is this statistically significant evidence for selection against introgression.