Implementation of Intercropping on Independent Palm Oil Plantation Based on Financial Feasibility Study

Consequences of rainforest conversion to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations on soil trace gas fluxes from highly weathered soils in Sumatra, Indonesia

The expansion of oil palm plantations through the conversion of lowland rice land to oil palm plantations has become a long debate because it is not in accordance with the vision and mission of Mukomuko Regency regarding food self-sufficiency, but in recent years there has been a change in the function of oil palm plantations to lowland rice. About 370 hectares of oil palm and swamp plantations in the Mukomuko District, Bengkulu, were converted into new rice fields. This is interesting to research because this phenomenon is considered unique when in other areas people flock to change the function of food land to oil palm plantations, on the other hand in Mukomuko District the community has shifted land functions from oil palm plantations to lowland rice, even though so far the oil palm farming business . The location selection was carried out purposively and the respondent determination was carried out by the solvin method, which obtained 181 respondents. Collecting data using a survey method by distributing questionnaires to respondents. For data analysis using qualitative and quantitative methods, to see the social impact is described descriptively, while the economic impact is seen from the side of revenue and income. The results of the study explain the social impact of farmers gathering in the fields more often during planting, fertilizing, spraying pests, and at harvest time. Farmers who were previously very consumptive, especially when the price of palm oil went up and experienced difficulties when the price of fresh fruit bunches fell, are now more prudent in managing finances. The environment around the land is now more beautiful and the water quality is getting better. As well as holding more frequent deliberations regarding policies and counseling on lowland rice farming. The economic impact of lowland rice farming generates an income of Rp. 36.151.207 / Ut / Ha / Th. while oil palm farming is Rp. 28,308,303 / Ut / Ha / Th. It can be concluded that the income obtained from lowland rice farming is greater than the income obtained by oil palm farming even though the time period for obtaining income is different, for lowland rice, revenue is obtained within three times a year, while oil palm farmers can earn income every two 14 days. once, or 24 times a year. It means that in terms of income, it increases after the land conversion is carried out..

Abstract. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations cover large areas of former rainforest in Sumatra, Indonesia, supplying the global demand for these crops. Although forest conversion is known to influence soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) fluxes, measurements from oil palm and rubber plantations are scarce (for N2O) or nonexistent (for NO). Our study aimed to (1) quantify changes in soil–atmosphere fluxes of N oxides with forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations and (2) determine their controlling factors. In Jambi, Sumatra, we selected two landscapes that mainly differed in texture but were both on heavily weathered soils: loam and clay Acrisol soils. Within each landscape, we investigated lowland forests, rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest (termed as jungle rubber), both as reference land uses and smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations as converted land uses. In the loam Acrisol landscape, we conducted a follow-on study in a large-scale oil palm plantation (called PTPN VI) for comparison of soil N2O fluxes with smallholder oil palm plantations. Land-use conversion to smallholder plantations had no effect on soil N-oxide fluxes (P = 0. 58 to 0.76) due to the generally low soil N availability in the reference land uses that further decreased with land-use conversion. Soil N2O fluxes from the large-scale oil palm plantation did not differ with those from smallholder plantations (P = 0. 15). Over 1-year measurements, the temporal patterns of soil N-oxide fluxes were influenced by soil mineral N and water contents. Across landscapes, annual soil N2O emissions were controlled by gross nitrification and sand content, which also suggest the influence of soil N and water availability. Soil N2O fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were 7 ± 2 to 14 ± 7 (reference land uses), 6 ± 3 to 9 ± 2 (rubber), 12 ± 3 to 12 ± 6 (smallholder oil palm) and 42 ± 24 (large-scale oil palm). Soil NO fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were −0.6 ± 0.7 to 5.7 ± 5.8 (reference land uses), −1.2 ± 0.5 to −1.0 ± 0.2 (rubber) and −0.2 ± 1.2 to 0.7 ± 0.7 (smallholder oil palm). To improve the estimate of soil N-oxide fluxes from oil palm plantations in this region, studies should focus on large-scale plantations (which usually have 2 to 4 times higher N fertilization rates than smallholders) with frequent measurements following fertilizer application.

Pro-environmental behavior among Indonesian oil palm smallholders: Understanding perceptions, intentions and actions

The aim of the research is to analyze and determine the influence of the level of welfare of oil palm farmers in Sungai Sayang Village, Sadu District, and to find out what obstacles are often faced in improving the welfare of oil palm farmers in Sungai Sayang Village, Sadu District. In this research the author used a qualitative approach with descriptive analysis methods. The level of welfare of oil palm farmers also depends on the farmer's income, especially the income obtained from oil palm plantations, so the higher the farmer's income from oil palm, the level of welfare of oil palm farmers will also increase. And also the obstacles faced by oil palm farmers in Sungai Sayang Village are the unstable selling price of palm oil FFB, and also inadequate road conditions making it difficult to transport the community's palm oil FFB products. The results of this research are that the level of welfare of oil palm farmers also depends on the farmer's income, especially the income obtained from oil palm plantations, so the higher the farmer's income from oil palm, the level of welfare of oil palm farmers will also increase. The obstacles faced by oil palm farmers in Sungai Sayang Village are the unstable selling price of palm oil FFB, and also inadequate road conditions making it difficult to transport the community's palm oil FFB products

Changes in eco-hydrological functioning after tropical rainforest transformation to rubber and oil palm plantations

Over the last two decades, Sumatra, Indonesia has experienced rapid expansion of rubber and oil palm plantations through conversion of rainforests. This is evident from the 36% decrease in forest area in this region from 1990-2010. Such rapid land-use change necessitates assessment of its environmental impacts. Forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations are expected to increase nutrient leaching losses and decrease nutrient retention efficiency, following the changes in soil cover, litter input, soil nutrient availability and management practices. This thesis presents two studies, which focused on the impact of forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations on nutrient leaching and nutrient retention efficiency, and on the difference in nutrient leaching losses between fertilized and frond-stacked areas of oil palm plantations. All studies were conducted in two landscapes of highly weathered soils that mainly differed in texture (loam and clay Acrisol soils), located in the Jambi province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Nutrient leaching losses were measured using suction cup lysimeters installed at 1.5 m soil depth and sampling frequency was bi-weekly to monthly during February to December 2013. In the first study, nutrient leaching losses and nutrient retention efficiency in the soil were measured in four land uses: the reference land uses of lowland forest and jungle rubber (rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest), and the converted land uses of smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. In each landscape, the first three land uses were represented by four replicate sites and the oil palm by three sites, totaling 30 sites. The results illustrated that for the reference land uses the loam Acrisol soil had higher leaching fluxes of dissolved nitrogen (N) and base cations, and lower retention efficiencies of N and base cations than the clay Acrisol soil. For the converted land uses, management practices such as fertilization and liming in oil palm plantations resulted in higher dissolved N, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and base cations leaching fluxes, and lower N and base cation retention efficiencies in the soil than the reference land uses. On the other hand, in the unfertilized rubber plantations leaching losses of dissolved N, DOC, and base cations were lower than in the oil palm plantations. Overall, the results showed that clay content and management practices controlled nutrient leaching losses and nutrient retention efficiencies in heavily weathered Acrisol soils of these converted landscapes. In the second study, nutrient leaching losses were measured in fertilized and frond-stacked areas of smallholder oil palm plantations in clay and loam Acrisol soils. The results exhibited higher leaching losses (i.e. N, base cations, total aluminum (Al), total manganese (Mn), total sulfur (S), and chloride (Cl)) in the fertilized area than the frond-stacked area due to pulse rates of applications of mineral fertilizers and lime. At the landscape scale, higher soil nutrient stocks and lower nutrient leaching losses in the clay Acrisol soil compared to the loam Acrisol soil both in the fertilized and frond stack areas were caused by the higher nutrient retention as a result of higher clay content. Combining nutrient leaching losses and nutrient input (i.e. bulk precipitation and fertilizers) with ancillary studies on nutrient output through harvest export provides more comprehensive information about the changes in partial nutrient budgets of N, phosphorus (P), and base cations due to forest conversion to oil palm and rubber plantations. Fertilized oil palm plantations had the lowest annual partial budget of N, calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) due to the high annual leaching losses and harvest export. However, the high negative partial budgets of N, Ca and Mg in oil palm plantations did not significantly decrease those stocks at 1-m soil depth compared to all the other land uses, except for exchangeable Mg in the loam Acrisol landscape. Even though unfertilized rubber plantations have lower leaching losses (e.g. P) than forest, harvest export caused the lower annual partial budget of P. Overall, these results from the two studies suggests for improved management practices on these highly weathered soils through synchronizing rate of application of fertilizer with plant uptake and frequency of fertilizer application.

This research is based on the background that oil palm plantations are a form of community farming that cultivates oil palm plants with production in the form of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) as one of their sources of livelihood, although investment in oil palm plantations requires a relatively long period of time compared to oil palm plantations. with other plantation commodities. The purpose of this study was to determine the oil palm farming business in Saliki Village based on FFB production and palm oil prices. The data collection method used in this study is a qualitative method, which is a research that is used if the research factors cannot be quantified or cannot be calculated so that the variables cannot be expressed with numbers such as perceptions, opinions, assumptions and so on. According to qualitative research theory, in order for the research to be of really high quality, the data collected must be complete, namely primary data and secondary data. From the results of this study, it can be concluded that oil palm farming in Saliki Village based on the production of fresh fruit bunches and the price of palm oil really helps farmers increase their income from farming by selling large quantities of produce and high selling prices. The income they generate from oil palm plantations can meet their daily needs. In addition, the community (oil palm farmers) can buy vehicles, renovate and even build houses from the results of the oil palm plantations. The results of this study are to provide information to the community in Saliki Village in order to be able to improve oil palm farming.

ABSTRACT
 
 The conversion of lowland rice land to oil palm plantations has become a long debate because it is not in accordance with the vision and mission of Mukomuko Regency regarding food self-sufficiency, but in recent years there has been a change in the function of oil palm plantations to lowland rice. This is interesting to study because this phenomenon is considered unique when in other areas people flock to change the function of food land to oil palm plantations, on the other hand in Mukomuko District the community has shifted land functions from oil palm plantations to rice fields, even though so far the oil palm farming business . The location selection was carried out purposively and the determination of the respondents was carried out by the solvin method, which obtained 181 respondents. Collecting data using a survey method by distributing questionnaires to respondents. For data analysis using the private profit method and the private cost ratio. The results of the study explain private profitability and financial efficiency (private cost ratio). Where the private profitability of lowland rice (Private Profitability) is Rp. 38,173,833, - / Ut / Ha / Year - while for oil palm farming, the private profit is Rp. 28,308,303, - / Ut / Ha / Year. This means that when viewed from a private profit side, lowland rice is more competitive. However, if it is seen from the financial efficiency (Private Cost Ratio) of lowland rice farming, it is 0.31, while for oil palm farming it is 0.24 which means that the PCR values ??of lowland rice and oil palm farming are less than 1, so both of them have a level of competitive advantage and have competitiveness, when compared, the value of oil palm PCR <PCR for Paddy Paddy (024 <0.31) which means that in financial efficiency, oil palm farming is more efficient.

Indonesia lost more tropical forest than all of Brazil in 2012, mainly driven by the rubber, oil palm, and timber industries. Nonetheless, the effects of converting forest to oil palm and rubber plantations on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks remain unclear. We analyzed SOC losses after lowland rainforest conversion to oil palm, intensive rubber, and extensive rubber plantations in Jambi Province on Sumatra Island. The focus was on two processes: (1) erosion and (2) decomposition of soil organic matter. Carbon contents in the Ah horizon under oil palm and rubber plantations were strongly reduced up to 70% and 62%, respectively. The decrease was lower under extensive rubber plantations (41%). On average, converting forest to plantations led to a loss of 10 Mg C ha(-1) after about 15 years of conversion. The C content in the subsoil was similar under the forest and the plantations. We therefore assumed that a shift to higher δ(13) C values in plantation subsoil corresponds to the losses from the upper soil layer by erosion. Erosion was estimated by comparing the δ(13) C profiles in the soils under forest and under plantations. The estimated erosion was the strongest in oil palm (35 ± 8 cm) and rubber (33 ± 10 cm) plantations. The (13) C enrichment of SOC used as a proxy of its turnover indicates a decrease of SOC decomposition rate in the Ah horizon under oil palm plantations after forest conversion. Nonetheless, based on the lack of C input from litter, we expect further losses of SOC in oil palm plantations, which are a less sustainable land use compared to rubber plantations. We conclude that δ(13) C depth profiles may be a powerful tool to disentangle soil erosion and SOC mineralization after the conversion of natural ecosystems conversion to intensive plantations when soils show gradual increase of δ(13) C values with depth.

Soil degradation in oil palm and rubber plantations under land resource scarcity

Smallholder oil palm plantations have not been able to meet the maximum level of income for their farmers. This study aims to determine the characteristics of farmers and to find out how farmers can maximize their income from their oil palm plantations. This study used a survey method, involving 43 farmers. The data is processed and analyzed using the approach to the relationship between costs and production results in order to obtain a total cost equation. From this equation, the marginal cost and average cost equations are then used to calculate the farmer's maximum income. The results showed that the more family members, the more oil palm yields that could be obtained, although most of the family members of these farmers still had low education. The income earned by oil palm farmers varies according to the area and age of their oil palm plantations. Oil palm that is getting older tends to provide less income for farmers. Oil palm farmers who have an average land area of ​​2.75 Ha and receive a selling price of IDR 1,456.00/Kg Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) only earn IDR 788,531.00/Ha. At the same FFB price level, farmers can get a maximum income of IDR 1,081,093.00/Ha, by selling 1,334 Kg of FFB. If for example the price of FFB is IDR 700.00/Kg, farmers can also get a maximum income of IDR 169,562.00/Ha by selling 2,550 Kg of FFB. Basically, farmers can obtain maximum income by adjusting the amount of FFB sold based on the prevailing FFB price level. This can only be done if the farmer uses the maximum income calculation formula as has been obtained from the research results.

Objective: This research focuses on studying the social capital of oil palm farmers in Sidomulyo Village, Wanaraya District, Barito Kuala District, South Kalimantan Province. Theoretical Framework: The study aims to achieve two main objectives: firstly, to identify the social capital possessed by independent oil palm farmers; secondly, to describe how they maintain this social capital. Method: Qualitative research methods were employed to gain a profound understanding of the social capital that supports the success of independent smallholders in managing oil palm plantations. The study was conducted in Sido Mulyo village, Wanaraya district, Barito Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan Province. Informants, serving as sources of information, were selected using purposive sampling techniques. Data collection involved observation, in-depth interviews with selected informants, and daily records, which played a crucial role in this research. The obtained data will be subjected to phenomenological analysis. The study revealed two key findings: first, various forms of social capital, and second, how this social capital is utilized. Results and Discussion: The identified forms of social capital include: (1) the social networks established by farmers with middlemen to sell palm oil to processing companies, (2) their membership in peasant groups, and (3) the work ethic exhibited by farmers as transmigrants. The utilization of social capital for their progress as farmers involves: (1) maintaining relationships in social networks to secure favorable palm oil prices and access to financial capital, (2) leveraging farmer groups to access fertilizer subsidies and protect against the threat of land fires, and (3) employing social norms to foster mutual assistance in preserving road access to oil palm plantations. Research Implications: This research contributes to understanding the various capitals owned by smallholders in oil palm plantation exploitation and the use of social capital for their success in plantation management palm oil. This model can be a reference for communities who want to get similar success in the development of oil palm plantations and can be done also in other locations that have the same land structure. Originality/Value: Social capital plays a crucial role in the success of independent farmers managing oil palm plantations. Several conclusions have been drawn regarding social capital in the management of oil palm plantations by independent smallholders. Firstly, the forms of social capital owned by independent oil palm plantation farmers include: (1) social networks established by farmers with middlemen for selling oil palm to processing companies, (2) membership in farmer groups, (3) the work ethic possessed by farmers as transmigrants, and (4) the social norms embraced by transmigrant farmers. Secondly, the utilization of social capital for their progress as farmers is carried out through: (1) maintaining relationships in social networks to secure palm oil prices and access capital, (2) utilizing farmer groups to access fertilizer subsidies and safeguard against the threat of land fires, and (3) applying social norms to foster mutual assistance in maintaining oil palm plantation infrastructure and addressing and preventing palm oil plantation fires.

Oil palm plantation is a sector that significantly contributes to the economy of the people in Riau Province. Along with the development of oil palm industry, various technologies that aim to increase production and income of oil palm farmers have been introduced to the society. One of these technologies is Sistem Integrasi Sapi dan Kelapa Sawit (SISKA). The aim of SISKA is to increase the income of smallholder oil palm farmers. Farmers' income is expected to increase with business efficiency through the use of waste from livestock as fertilizer in oil palm plantations and new sources of income are emerging as a result of livestock business. This study aims to examine the comparison of productivity and income of plantation using SISKA and without using SISKA in Siak Regency. The study was conducted using a survey method in two representative locations, namely Sialang Palas Village, Lubuk Dalam District and Teluk Merbau Village, Dayun District. The research data are the primary data gathered by purposive sampling technique. The results showed that the productivity of plantations with SISKA that use organic fertilizer 18,899.93 kg/ha/year relatively higher than the productivity of plantations without SISKA that not use organic fertilizer 17,039.73/ha/year (significant at a 15%). The income of oil palm plantations using SISKA Rp 22,906,136.7/ha/year relatively higher than the income of the plantations without SISKA Rp 21,294,583.00/ha/year, however the difference is not statistically significant, because using SISKA increase the production cost.

Krueng Itam village is one of the villages where the majority of the residents work as palm oil farmers and depend on palm oil plantations. In marketing to sell FFB (Fresh Fruit Bunch) palm oil farmers still rely on collector traders (agents) which in this case is referred to by the term "Tauke Sawit" (toke sawit). In the beginning, the relationship between palm oil farmers and the Tauke was limited to economic relations, such as the sale and purchase relationship between sellers and buyers. But in its development, the relationship turns into a relationship of dependence and interest that leads to a patron-client relationship. This study used a descriptive qualitative method with data collection techniques through observation and interview process that is expected to be able to provide an overview of the social relationship between tauke and farmers. Based on the results of the study, the relationship between tauke and palm oil farmers is a patron- client relationship where palm oil tauke as the patron and palm oil farmers as clients. Palm oil farmers need tauke to accomodate the harvest of palm oil FFB and tauke needs palm oil FFB from farmers to be sold to Palm oil mills. In this cooperative relationship, farmers will usually borrow money for capital needs and others to the tauke, this makes the farmers' dependence on the tauke become greater so that each of them will maintain the relationship by respecting the existing norms so that the relationship has been established will not be broken easily. The relationship of patron-clients is more visible in the relationship between tauke and small farmers, this is because there is a clear difference in socio-economic status between the two, so that the tauke as a patron play a big role.