Impacts of climate change on water resources and farming community adaptation strategies in southwestern Ethiopia

Rising agricultural water scarcity in China is driven by expansion of irrigated cropland in water scarce regions

Little efforts have been made to scientifically document smallholder farmers understanding on the nature of climate change effects on water resources in developing countries. The objective of this study was to examine farmers understanding about climate change impacts on water resources in the Dura catchment, northern Ethiopia. Total sample sizes of 79 farmers’ selected using systematic sampling method were interviewed with semi-structured questionnaire. Data were subjected to descriptive, chi-square and t-test analysis. The majority of the farmers reported that socioeconomic, farm and institutional attributes influenced significantly their understanding of climate change effects on water resources. This study showed that most farmers are well aware about the significant differences in the sensitivity of water resources to climate change effects across the different landforms. According to 58% of the farmers’, water resources in the mountainous area of the study catchment is “very sensitive” to climate change effects. In this study, significantly higher proportion of farmers also understood climate change effects on the different water resource components such as soil moisture storage, runoff, groundwater, evapotranspiration. The impact of climate change on the different sectors of water utilization as irrigated agriculture, rain-fed agriculture and water supply was also reported by 78.3, 73.2 and 59.5% of the respondents, respectively. According to 98.7% of the respondents, impacts of climate change under unsuitable condition damages severely their economic condition. Against such impact of climate change on water resources; about 86.8% of the farmers reported that they have been used re-active adaptation practices. However, many respondents (74.7%) believed that shared responsibility among the actors could enhance the successfulness of pro-active activities against climate change effects on water resources. On the basis of this study it is concluded that farmers seem to have noticed the changes and impacts of climate on water resources and this could contribute to improve the limited knowledge on climate science. Hence, smallholder farmers level of understanding on the effects of climate change on water resources should be considered by development workers and planners during decision-making processes and developing adaptation strategies that address challenges already faced and in the future.

Climate change is a major development challenge affecting developing countries that rely on rain-fed agricultural production for food and income. Smallholder farmers in these countries are using multiple adaptation practices to manage the effects of climate change. This chapter examines household and community-level factors that influence smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change in the Hwedza District in Zimbabwe. Data for this study were collected from 400 randomly selected smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The study used a multilevel modeling approach to examine the factors that influence smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change. Results from the study show that smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change is conditioned by access to extension services, access to remittances, family labor, household education (household level factors), and linking capital (community-level factor). This chapter therefore concludes that smallholder farmers that have higher levels of adaptation to climate change are those that are well linked to external organizations and have access to agricultural extension services. The chapter recommends that adaptation to climate change can be enhanced by improving access to agricultural extension services and promoting linkages with external organizations that provide information on agricultural adaptation practices.

Climate change is a major development challenge affecting developing countries that rely on rain-fed agricultural production for food and income. Smallholder farmers in these countries are using multiple adaptation practices to manage the effects of climate change. This chapter examines household and community-level factors that influence smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change in the Hwedza District in Zimbabwe. Data for this study were collected from 400 randomly selected smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The study used a multilevel modeling approach to examine the factors that influence smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change. Results from the study show that smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change is conditioned by access to extension services, access to remittances, family labor, household education (household level factors), and linking capital (community-level factor). This chapter therefore concludes that smallholder farmers that have higher levels of adaptation to climate change are those that are well linked to external organizations and have access to agricultural extension services. The chapter recommends that adaptation to climate change can be enhanced by improving access to agricultural extension services and promoting linkages with external organizations that provide information on agricultural adaptation practices.

Climate change is a significant global issue that affects our everyday lives and water resources. One of the most critical impacts of climate change is on our water resources, which are vital for sustaining life and supporting various ecosystems. Understanding the complex relationship between climate change and water resources is crucial for developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study aims to investigate the impact of climate change on water resources and to shed light on the importance of addressing this issue. Water is a limited resource, and its availability and quality directly affect human well-being, agriculture, energy production, and ecosystem health. However, climate change alters the patterns and dynamics of precipitation, temperature, and evaporation, leading to significant changes in water availability and distribution. Increasing global temperatures cause glaciers and ice caps to melt, progressively depleting freshwater resources. Moreover, changing precipitation patterns are leading to more frequent and severe droughts in some regions, while others experience increased rainfall and flooding events. The effects of these changes are profound. As water scarcity becomes more widespread, competition for limited resources intensifies, potentially leading to conflicts and social unrest. Given the importance of water resources and the undeniable impact of climate change on their availability and quality, it is imperative that we deepen our understanding of this complex relationship. This study aims to assess the socio-economic and environmental impacts of climate change on water resources. By doing so, it seeks to provide policymakers, scientists, and communities with information that will guide decision-making processes and direct effective climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. In conclusion, the impact of climate change on water resources cannot be overstated. This study aims to contribute to our understanding of this critical issue by highlighting the urgency of addressing climate change and its consequences on water resources and sustainability. This study examines the effects of changing precipitation patterns and increasing temperatures due to climate change on underground and surface water resources in Turkey. By conducting this research, we hope to pave the way for informed decision-making and encourage collective responsibility to protect our water resources for future generations.

Smallholder farmers’ choice of irrigation systems: Empirical evidence from Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa and its implications

Agriculture production is directly dependent on climate change and weather. Possible changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 concentration are expected to significantly impact crop growth and ultimately we lose our crop productivity and indirectly affect the sustainable food availability issue. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate with successful adaptation and adequate irrigation. Climate change has a serious impact on the availability of various resources on the earth especially water, which sustains life on this planet. The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Weather aberration poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. Changes in the biosphere, biodiversity and natural resources are adversely affecting human health and quality of life. Throughout the 21st century, India is projected to experience warming above global level. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers. Longevity of heat waves across India has extended in recent years with warmer night temperatures and hotter days, and this trend is expected to continue. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture, climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus, service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority setting. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. Introduction Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. This vulnerability is relatively higher in India in view of the large population depending on agriculture and poor coping capabilities of small and marginal farmers. Impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to food security. “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions. According to the United Nations, in 2015, there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD1.25/day) (UN, 2015). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70 percent of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly (or completely) on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed. Climate change threatens to reverse the progress made so far in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. As highlighted by the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), climate change augments and intensifies risks to food security for the most vulnerable countries and populations. Few of the major risks induced by climate change, as identified by IPCC have direct consequences for food security (IPCC, 2007). These are mainly to loss of rural livelihoods and income, loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, livelihoods loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems and food insecurity (breakdown of food systems). Rural farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. Most of the crop simulation model runs and experiments under elevated temperature and carbon dioxide indicate that by 2030, a 3-7% decline in the yield of principal cereal crops like rice and wheat is likely in India by adoption of current production technologies. Global warming impacts growth, reproduction and yields of food and horticulture crops, increases crop water requirement, causes more soil erosion, increases thermal stress on animals leading to decreased milk yields and change the distribution and breeding season of fisheries. Fast changing climatic conditions, shrinking land, water and other natural resources with rapid growing population around the globe has put many challenges before us (Mukherjee, 2014). Food is going to be second most challenging issue for mankind in time to come. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007). Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security in India and it's subcontinent. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities. Currently we are able to secure food supplies under these varying conditions. Under the threat of climate variability, our food grain production system becomes quite comfortable and easily accessible for local people. India's food grain production is estimated to rise 2 per cent in 2020-21 crop years to an all-time high of 303.34 million tonnes on better output of rice, wheat, pulse and coarse cereals amid good monsoon rains last year. In the 2019-20 crop year, the country's food grain output (comprising wheat, rice, pulses and coarse cereals) stood at a record 297.5 million tonnes (MT). Releasing the second advance estimates for 2020-21 crop year, the agriculture ministry said foodgrain production is projected at a record 303.34 MT. As per the data, rice production is pegged at record 120.32 MT as against 118.87 MT in the previous year. Wheat production is estimated to rise to a record 109.24 MT in 2020-21 from 107.86 MT in the previous year, while output of coarse cereals is likely to increase to 49.36 MT from 47.75 MT. Pulses output is seen at 24.42 MT, up from 23.03 MT in 2019-20 crop year. In the non-foodgrain category, the production of oilseeds is estimated at 37.31 MT in 2020-21 as against 33.22 MT in the previous year. Sugarcane production is pegged at 397.66 MT from 370.50 MT in the previous year, while cotton output is expected to be higher at 36.54 million bales (170 kg each) from 36.07. This production figure seem to be sufficient for current population, but we need to improve more and more with vertical farming and advance agronomic and crop improvement tools for future burgeoning population figure under the milieu of climate change issue. Our rural mass and tribal people have very limited resources and they sometime complete depend on forest microhabitat. To order to ensure food and nutritional security for growing population, a new strategy needs to be initiated for growing of crops in changing climatic condition. The country has a large pool of underutilized or underexploited fruit or cereals crops which have enormous potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability under the changing climatic conditions, since they require little input, as they have inherent capabilities to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. Apart from the impacts on agronomic conditions of crop productions, climate change also affects the economy, food systems and wellbeing of the consumers (Abbade, 2017). Crop nutritional quality become very challenging, as we noticed that, zinc and iron deficiency is a serious global health problem in humans depending on cereal-diet and is largely prevalent in low-income countries like Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and South-east Asia. We report inefficiency of modern-bred cultivars of rice and wheat to sequester those essential nutrients in grains as the reason for such deficiency and prevalence (Debnath et al., 2021). Keeping in mind the crop yield and nutritional quality become very daunting task to our food security issue and this can overcome with the proper and time bound research in cognizance with the environment. Threat and challenges In recent years, climate change has become a debatable issue worldwide. South Asia will be one of the most adversely affected regions in terms of impacts of climate change on agricultural yield, economic activity and trading policies. Addressing climate change is central for global future food security and poverty alleviation. The approach would need to implement strategies linked with developmental plans to enhance its adaptive capacity in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. Over time, there has been a visible shift in the global climate change initiative towards adaptation. Adaptation can complement mitigation as a cost-effective strategy to reduce climate change risks. The impact of climate change is projected to have different effects across societies and countries. Mitigation and adaptation actions can, if appropriately designed, advance sustainable development and equity both within and across countries and between generations. One approach to balancing the attention on adaptation and mitigation strategies is to compare the costs and benefits of both the strategies. The most imminent change is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increase levels of GHGs (Green House Gases) i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc into the atmosphere. The global mean annual temperatures at the end of the 20th

Smallholder farmers in emerging economies have long faced information asymmetry difficulties which limits their access to lucrative markets. Farmers therefore, decide to sell their produce through middlemen at relatively low prices, resulting in insufficient profits. Numerous studies have shown that digital marketing technologies in agriculture are an important tool for farmers to be active participants in profitable markets by improving their access to timely and relevant market information. Despite the rapid expansion of digital marketing technology in emerging nations' agricultural sectors, adoption of such technologies in rural areas remains low. The purpose of this study was to identify the characteristics that influence smallholder farmers' usage of digital marketing technology in the selling of green leafy vegetables in Lari sub-County, Kenya. The study specifically attempted to determine the socioeconomic, institutional, and technological factors that influence smallholder farmers' usage of digital technology. A descriptive survey research design was used. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select 374 green leafy vegetable farmers. The semi-structured questionnaire was employed to collect data. A multivariate probit model was used to analyze the data. The results show that education level, access to extension services, electricity installation positively influenced the use of mobile phone, social media, and internet search engines in marketing of green leafy vegetables. The adoption of digital marketing technologies in the marketing of vegetables can be influenced by several factors. Therefore, the study recommends the County Government to implement targeted educational initiatives that focus on digital literacy for smallholder farmers. Keywords: marketing; vegetables; mobile phone; social-media; middlemen; socioeconomic DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/14-4-03 Publication date: December 30 th 2024

Water is part of the global resources facing a great threat from the current changing climate and population increase, its scarcity and dramatic decrease in Arid and semi-arid regions of the world implies a setback to socio-economic development. This study examines the impact of climate change and population increased on water scarcity in urban Katsina through human perception. A purposive sampling method was employed and a total of 245 questionnaires were administered to the household heads in the study area. Descriptive statistics of frequency distribution and percentage were used in the analysis of the collected data. The results revealed that majority (70.2%) of the respondents are aware of the changing climate and its impact on water resource. Changes in the volume of water resources over years in the study area was significantly decreased (well 67.6%, tap 72.5% and rainwater 47.3%) which resulted in scarcity as perceived by the respondents. Majority (53.8%) have no idea about the changes in volume of boreholes water. The most significant impacts of climate change on water resource in the study area were low rainfall duration and intensity, drying up of wells, lowering of water table and increase frequency and occurrence of drought. It is recommended that water resource supply infrastructures, integrated water resource management and creation of awareness on the impacts of climate change on water should be provided as part of the strategies to ameliorate the impact of climate change on water resources.
 Keywords: Climate change; Perception; Population Growth; Urban Katsina; Water scarcity.

Smallholder farmers who rely on home garden agroforestry are experiencing significant impacts from climate change. To mitigate these effects, it is crucial for farmers to have access to various adaptation strategies. This study collected data from 384 randomly selected respondents in 18 kebeles over three districts, using descriptive statistics and a multivariate probit model to evaluate the factors influencing smallholder farmers’ decisions on their adaptation strategies against climate change. In Ethiopia’s Gedeo zone, this study found that smallholder farmers employ a range of adaptation methods, including expanding their agroforestry system, implementing modern agriculture techniques, conserving soil and water, diversifying their livelihoods, and employing various coping mechanisms. By analyzing data using the multivariate probit model, this study found several factors that had a significant impact on smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation options. These factors include social network, age, education level, farming experience, household size, cultivated land size, annual income, and livestock holding. In addition, factors such as perception of climate change, previous experience of crop failure, recurrent drought, and access to information about climate change, occurrence of frost, agricultural extension contacts, access to farmer-to-farmer extension services, and perception of land infertility also influence their decision-making process. Our findings highlight the importance of improving institutional services in rural areas, promoting education on climate change, and strengthening social networks to enhance the ability of smallholder farmers to cope with the effects of climate change.

Water scarcity and inefficient water management practices pose significant threats to agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods in Nigeria, particularly among smallholder farmers who rely heavily on rain-fed agriculture. Despite increasing awareness of water conservation technologies (WCTs) as viable strategies for sustainable agricultural water use, their adoption among farmers remains relatively low and uneven across regions, highlighting the need to understand factors influencing smallholder farmers’ adoption of water conservation technologies in Osun State, Nigeria. The study focused on identifying the WCTs embraced by farmers, understanding their motivations for adoption, and analyzing the factors influencing their adoption decisions. Data was collected via a pre-tested questionnaire administered to 120 smallholder farmers selected through a multistage sampling process. Descriptive statistics and a multivariate probit (MVP) model were employed for data analysis. Findings indicated that the majority (55.8%) of farmers were male, aged 41-50, with primary education (41.7%), and household and farm sizes averaging 6 persons and 4 hectares, respectively. The most adopted WCTs included irrigation/dam (68.3%), grass strips (62.5%), stone bund (50%), soil bund (41.7%), and contour ploughing (32.5%). Reasons for adoption ranged from yield increase to flood control and soil fertility improvement. The MVP model revealed several factors influencing adoption, including farmers' demographics, education, farming experience, land acquisition methods, and access to credit and extension services. The study suggests enhancing educational opportunities, credit access, farmer associations, and extension services as essential policy measures to foster technology adoption in the study area.

It is frequently acknowledged that the economy of India and in particular its agricultural sectors will face serious water challenges over the coming decades (e.g. Rosegrant et al., 2013 and Rodriguez et al., 2013). Population growth coupled with economic growth of nearly 7% per year to 2035 will translate into strong growth in food demand, crop production, and demand for water for irrigation. Growing demand for irrigation, when coupled with industrial, residential, and commercial demands for water, is projected to result in intense competition for water in India. However, the intensity of this competition will not be uniform across different Agro Ecological Zones (AEZs) of this country. In particular, the impact of climate change on irrigation is likely to be differentially felt across AEZs. Hence, while irrigation adoption is commonly suggested as an important alternative response to climate change, changes in water scarcity can change the extent that this policy can be implemented. This paper develops and uses an advanced computable general equilibrium (CGE) model coupled with biophysical data on land and water resources by AEZ at a river basin level to mainly examine: 1) the consequences of the climate change for India’s agricultural and food products; 2) the extent to which water scarcity can affect the irrigation adoption and demand for water; and 3) how water scarcity, climate change, and trade jointly alter land use changes across the Indian subcontinent.

The socioeconomic costs of floods, droughts, and water scarcity in the years 2030 and 2095 are examined under three climate scenarios: continuation of the current climate and two climate-change scenarios based on projections from the respective results of the Canadian and Hadley general circulation models. Measures of the adequacy of water supplies to meet both withdrawal and instream uses under current and future conditions are developed for the 18 major water resources regions and 99 assessment subregions in the conterminous United States. Past and likely future changes in the infrastructure available to control and distribute water, the costs of nontraditional sources of supply, water management practices, conservation opportunities, the nature of the economy, slack in the water supply system, and institutions influencing water use are examined and provide the basis for evaluating the impacts of changes in both climate and non-climate factors on U.S. water resources. The impacts of the climate changes are calculated as the changes in the costs of maintaining the projected no-climate change, non-irrigation off-stream water uses with the climate-altered supplies. The costs and benefits are estimated under three alternative management strategies that differ in the protection provided for stream-flows and irrigation. The results support several general conclusions. First, a greenhouse warming could have major impacts on the future costs of floods, droughts, and balancing water demands and supplies. Second, the contrasting hydrologic implications of the Canadian and Hadley climate models indicate that the magnitude as well as the direction of these impacts are uncertain and likely to vary significantly among water resources regions. Third, there are many oppor-tunities to adapt to changing hydrological conditions, and the net costs are particularly sensitive to the institutions that determine how the resource is managed and allocated among users. This report was prepared as part of the Water Assessment Sector Team’s contribution to the U.S. National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change for the Nation being conducted under the auspices of the U.S. Global Change Research Program. The climate-change scenarios used in this report were developed for use in the National Assessment.

The resilience of the agricultural sector is increasingly threatened by climate change while rainfed agriculture has become more susceptible to climate and weather-related stressors. However, farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk which vary by niche, greatly influence their adaptation strategies. This study used a questionnaire survey to solicit factors that inform and shape climate change risk perceptions of smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas in Zimbabwe. A sample of 180 farming households was randomly selected from six wards of Beitbridge District, Matabeleland South Province. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and the ordered probit regression model were used to assess the determinants of smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk. Results show that perceptions of climate change risk are significantly enhanced by educational level, participation in social groups, household experience in agriculture, access to climate information and extension services, as well as age, gender, and education level of the household head. However, resource endowments reduced the climate change risk perception of households. However, the weak influence of these factors points towards the existence of other issues that influence smallholder farmer climate risk perceptions that warrant additional research to understand how these inform and shape smallholder farmer decision-making. Nonetheless, there is a continuous need to improve smallholder farmers’ access to climate information and build their capacity to address emerging climate risks. This is critical to shaping their climate change risk perceptions and influencing their decisions to adopt resilience-building technologies.

Natural and human-induced impacts on water resources across the globe continue to negatively impact water resources. Characterizing the hydrologic sensitivity to climatic and anthropogenic changes is problematic given the lack of monitoring networks and global-scale model uncertainties. This study presents an integrated methodology combining satellite remote sensing (e.g., GRACE, TRMM), hydrologic modeling (e.g., SWAT), and climate projections (IPCC AR5), to evaluate the impact of climatic and man-made changes on groundwater and surface water resources. The approach was carried out on two scales: regional (Morocco) and watershed (Souss Basin, Morocco) to capture the recent climatic changes in precipitation and total water storage, examine current and projected impacts on total water resources (surface and groundwater), and investigate the link between climate change and groundwater resources. Simulated (1979–2014) potential renewable groundwater resources obtained from SWAT are ~4.3 × 108 m3/yr. GRACE data (2002–2016) indicates a decline in total water storage anomaly of ~0.019m/yr., while precipitation remains relatively constant through the same time period (2002–2016), suggesting human interactions as the major underlying cause of depleting groundwater reserves. Results highlight the need for further conservation of diminishing groundwater resources and a more complete understanding of the links and impacts of climate change on groundwater resources.