Impacto de composición familiar en los niveles de pobreza de Perú

This article serves three purposes: (1) it reviews the evidence on trends in urban and rural poverty in Southeast Asia in recent years; (2) it examines the available estimates of increases in poverty in Indonesia, the most severely affected economy; (3) in the light of this evidence, it looks at possible policy interventions, specifically for Indonesia, but also draws some more general conclusions for the ASEAN region. Introduction It is clearly premature to analyse the impact of the crisis on poverty or on the distribution of income and wealth in any of the severely affected ASEAN economies. Household income and expenditure surveys in most parts of the region are carried out only every two or three years, and their results can take at least another year to be published. Analysts are unlikely to have reliable household survey data for 1998 (the first year in which the full impact of the crisis will be felt) until at least the latter part of 1999. Where household surveys are not due until 1999, the data will not be available until 2000 or 2001. Although several studies are already predicting very substantial increases in numbers below the poverty line in both Indonesia and Thailand, such estimates, however carefully they have been made, must be treated with caution. While few serious commentators doubt that there will be a sharp fall in household incomes in both these economies, for reasons which I discuss in more detail below, it is far from clear how the decline will affect different regions, and different socio-economic groups. Given these constraints, the main purposes of this article are three-fold. The first part of the article reviews the evidence on trends in urban and rural poverty in Southeast Asia in recent years. The second part examines the available estimates on increases in poverty for Indonesia, the most severely affected economy in ASEAN. Although all these estimates are to some extent conjectural, important lessons can be drawn from them about the impact of the crisis on poverty in Indonesia. On the basis of the Indonesian evidence, the third part of the paper looks at possible policy interventions, again paying particular attention to the Indonesian case but also drawing some more general conclusions about appropriate policy responses in other parts of the ASEAN region. Urban and Rural Poverty in ASEAN It has frequently been argued that, in spite of the relative neglect of the agricultural sector in recent years, the fast-growing ASEAN economies have all experienced a rapid decline in numbers below the poverty line, in both urban and rural areas.1 Certainly the available data indicate a sustained decline in both the headcount measure of poverty and the numbers below the poverty line in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia between 1985 and 1995 (Ahuja, Bidani, Ferreira and Walton 1997, p. 6). The extent to which this decline is due to declines within rural areas, as distinct from declines in urban areas and intersectoral population shifts, is more controversial. The issue is made more complicated by debates about appropriate urban and rural poverty lines. In Indonesia, the official poverty estimates have consistently used a much higher poverty line in urban than in rural areas; in many years the urban line has been at least 50 per cent higher. This has been criticized by several analysts, who argue that such a large differential cannot be justified by differences in prices (Asra 1998, pp. 22-24). Of course the higher poverty line in urban areas gives a higher headcount measure of poverty, relative to that in rural areas. The higher headcount measure coupled with the fact that urban populations were growing much faster meant that, in the years from 1976 to 1987, the absolute numbers of poor in urban areas scarcely changed in Indonesia; almost the entire decline in numbers below the poverty line over these years was due to the fall in rural areas (Central Board of Statistics 1992, Table 3. …

Effect of Socioeconomic Status on 24-Hour Urine Composition in Patients With Nephrolithiasis

Blood lead levels in children in urban and rural areas: Using multilevel modeling to investigate impacts of gender, race, poverty, and the environment

Every year six million children die worldwide due to diseases that are easily preventable or curable. Interventions to reduce the number of deaths are offered by health facilities, yet many children continue to die at home without receiving any type of health care. Expansion of the strategy for the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI), promoted by WHO and UNICEF, provides a unique opportunity to improve health care for young children at the household level. This thesis examines the potential role for community health workers (CHWs) in extending the IMCI strategy from health facilities to the community. A review of the literature on CHWs and IMCI is followed by a description of two state-wide questionnaire surveys and a qualitative study carried out in Sergipe, Northeastern Brazil, aimed at evaluating child health care with particular emphasis on the role ofCHWs. In the first survey, children less than five years of age were investigated regarding morbidity patterns, utilization of health services, socioeconomic and household conditions. A two-stage process led to a representative sample of caretakers of 1,785 children (response rate of 98%). About one third of the families with children were living below the poverty line and under unfavourable environmental conditions. Of all the children studied, 39% had been ill in the two weeks preceding the survey, mostly with acute lower respiratory infections which is the main reason for medical consultations and hospital admissions in the State. Co-morbidity was frequent and 85% of all reported illness episodes were covered by the IMCI strategy. Nine out of 10 children were fully immunized, and 69% had had their growth monitored in the last month. Almost all children who sought care were seen by a health worker. Despite high access to health care, essential drugs were often unavailable in health facilities. Overprescribing was also common with two thirds of children, seen by a doctor, having received an antibiotic. The median duration of total and exclusive breastfeeding were very short at 5.4 months and 2.1 months, respectively. Complementary feeding was also inappropriate with a median number of three meals in the previous 24 hours when, at least, five meals are recommended. There is therefore a potentially significant role for IMCI in improving the quality of care and nutritional management of children under five years of age. CHWs were regularly visiting 81% of all children under five years of age in the State. There was a clear trend towards higher coverage among the poor. Coverage was highest among children living in municipalities in the interior of the State (86.9% against 58.1% in the capital) and in rural areas (88.5% against 76.3% in urban areas). CHWs were also more 8 likely to visit children whose mothers did not attend school (86.3% against 69.3% with nine years or more of schooling) and those belonging to families earning less than one minimum wage (89.2% against 69.4% of families receiving four minimum wages or more). This suggests that CHWs are contributing to reducing inequities in access to basic health care and may explain the high coverage of immunization and growth monitoring activities as CHWs playa major role in delivering these activities. In the second representative survey, 311 CHWs were asked about their knowledge on child survival issues as well as about the support and supervision they received from their local health teams. Again, a two-stage sampling process (municipalities and CHWs) was used with a response rate of 96%. CHWs from Sergipe state were usually female, young and married. Their educational level was substantially higher than that of mothers of young children. Yet, CHWs were inadequately trained, supervised and supported. They were overloaded having to deliver 26 different tasks and usually worked alone in the community. In addition, their professional standing was negatively affected by low salaries, a lack of job security and few fringe benefits. A comparison of families who were regularly visited by CHWs and those that were not, showed a positive effect on maternal knowledge about oral rehydration therapy, breastfeeding and kind of delivery. Children who were visited were also more likely to receive vitamin A and be weighed regularly. The positive impact of CHW visits remained after adjustment for confounding variables. These findings suggest that CHWs are already effective in improving maternal knowledge as well as in providing several interventions that are part of the IMCI strategy. In order to investigate perceptions and beliefs regarding health care, the qualitative study included expert interviews with doctors, nurses and heads of municipal departments of health as well as in-depth interviews with a sample of CHWs. Mothers of children under five years old were enrolled in the qualitative study through focus groups discussions. A total of 90 qualitative interviews and six focus groups were carried out by the author of this thesis and an anthropologist. These data showed that the relationships between facility workers, CHWs and community mothers were often conflicting. Facility workers did not take part in community activities and, in tum, mothers did not participate in group activities in the health facilities. As a result, integration was poor or non-existent. Mothers, especially those from rural areas, wanted a greater availability of doctors and nurses. Most facility workers, in contrast, judged mothers to be highly demanding, making excessive use of health services by seeking health care for mild illnesses, and making inappropriate demands because they 9 lacked knowledge about the roles of the different cadres of health workers. The role of CHWs in the health team was unclear and their tasks were not properly defined. Their relationship with facility workers, especially doctors, was often conflicting. They also did not relate well to urban mothers, who wanted direct access to doctors and who did not feel that CHWs had greater knowledge than themselves. Rural mothers had a generally positive view of CHWs. Currently the main task of CHWs is to act as messengers between the community and the health facility. While this is a positive role per se, CHWs could have a greater impact if their roles in urban and rural areas were more specialized. In urban areas, they should be better trained to deliver educational messages, whereas in rural areas they should also be allowed to perform simple curative tasks to improve their professional standing as well as to deliver key interventions in areas with poor access to health facilities. Almost all respondents stated that extending the activities related to IMCI - such as identifying pneumonia and dysentery at household level through CHWs - would be highly appropriate and desirable. However, to effectively extend IMCI to the community through CHWs, substantial changes would have to occur in their selection, training, supervision, support and professional standing. Several policy recommendations for improving child health in Sergipe are presented. These include improving the performance and professional standing of CHWs and redefining their tasks in the light of the IMCI strategy. Recommendations are also given for improving the integration between communities, facility-based health workers and CHWs, and on how to extend IMCI more effectively to the community through an enhanced role for CHWs.

The overarching objective of this study was to assess poverty situation in Tanzania using a multitude of approach so as to provide empirical evidence of conceptual and methodological challenges encountered in poverty analysis studies. Specifically, the study strove to: (1) analyse the poverty situation in the study sites, (2) assess income inequality in study sites, and (3) determine the method that could be commonly employed to measure poverty , with a view to improve consistency in poverty statistics. A sample of 568 respondent households was involved in the study. Data was collected through household questionnaire, key informant interview, focus group discussion and researcher’s direct observations. Collected data was analysed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft excel computer programmes. Different poverty lines have provided different results regarding the number of households which are poor. Relative poverty line of 40% of the median income gave the lowest value of poverty in the study area, while the ethical poverty line provided the highest rate of poverty. Accordingly, it was found that using selected poverty lines: overall, 29.3% - 98.2% of households are poor. In rural areas, 24.5% - 96.8% of households are poor. In peri-urban areas, it was found that 20% to 100% (depending on the poverty line used) were poor, while in urban areas the poverty rate was found to be between 37.1% to 99%. Using weighted geometric mean of relative and absolute poverty lines (ρ = 0.7) at relative poverty line of 50% of median income and absolute poverty line of US$ 1-a-day (2005PPP): Overall, 53.5% of households are poor, and poverty rates in rural, peri-urban and urban areas are 55%, 53% and 46% respectively. The findings revealed further that the poverty gap ratio and severity ratio are highest in urban areas (0.35 and 0.29 respectively), medium in rural area (0.33 and 0.24 respectively) and minimum in peri-urban area (0.29 and 0.20 respectively). Household income inequality in the study area is high (Gini Coefficient = 0.773), with variations in the strata as follows: rural areas (Gini Coefficient = 0.821); peri-urban areas (Gini Coefficient = 0.574); and urban areas (Gini Coefficient = 0.717). Inter-strata inequality index in the study area (depending on the method used) ranged between 0.158 – 0.172, while inter-regional inequality index ranged between 0.004 and 0.116. Some recommendations have been put forward: Firstly, in the determination of poverty rates (head counts) the appropriate yardstick to be used is weighted geometric mean of relative and absolute poverty lines (ρ = 0.7) at relative poverty line of 50% of median income and absolute poverty line of US$ 1-a-day (2005PPP). Secondly, in the determination of household income inequality, Gini Coefficient should be used. Thirdly, the Hoover coefficient (Robin Hood Index) is a more appropriate metric for regional and inter-strata inequality.

The article examines the process of transformation of the family institution in Belarus. Over a hundred years, the Belarusian family has undergone radical changes. As many specialists point out, there has been a transition from a patriarchal (traditional) multi-generational large family to an egalitarian, nuclear, small family. A comparison of the results of the 2009 and 2019 censuses reveals the main current challenges for the family institution: an increase in the number of singles, a decrease in the number of families, a decline in the number of married couples with underage children, and a reduction in the average family size. Positive trends include an increase in the number of children in households with underage children and an increase in the proportion of households with three or more children. One of the main challenges to demographic security is the reluctance to have children. According to census data, women's plans to have children have been assessed. Differentiation in birth planning across the country's districts has been identified. Based on the available demographic data and the results of the 2019 census, a typology of administrative districts of Belarus by the family structure and reproductive potential has been developed. The typology is based on the principles of rating and the main priorities of demographic security of the Republic of Belarus. Most districts in the Republic of Belarus are characterised by an average level of family structure and reproductive potential. The largest concentration of districts with a transitional type with above-average family structure and reproductive potential indicators is located in Brest, Gomel and Minsk regions.

ObjectiveTo investigate the proportion of registered cases relative to size, distribution characteristics, medication status, and management status of patients diagnosed with severe mental disorders (SMD) in Fuzhou. The medication status and management status were compared between patients in urban and non-urban areas to provide scientific evidence for improving SMD care, control, and treatment in primary health care institutions.MethodsData (case types, demographic data, distribution data, medication status, and management status, etc.) of patients diagnosed with SMD in 12 districts, counties, and prefectures in the urban and non-urban areas of Fuzhou City were collected from October 2017 to September 2018. Three distributions (population, local, and districts/counties) were used to describe the proportion of registered cases relative to size and clinical characteristics of diagnosed SMD. Chi squared (χ2) test was used to compare the severity in urban and non-urban areas.ResultsA total of 30,362 registered SMD patients were identified in Fuzhou City of which schizophrenia accounted for the highest number of cases (26,204, 86.31%), and paranoid psychosis had the least number of cases (47, 0.15%). Moreover, approximately half of SMD patients were 18 to 44 years old (45.38%). Close to one third of patients were farmers (30.23%), had a primary school or lower education level (54.17%), were poor, with most below the poverty line (55.35%). The proportion of diagnosed SMD relative to size was highest in Minqing County (0.53%) and lowest in Mawei District (0.38%). A total of 22,989 (75.72%) of the patients were taking medications, and only 17,509 (57.67%) were taking medications regularly. Moreover, the percentage of cases taking medications and those taking medications regularly were higher in urban areas than in non-urban areas (P<0.05). A total of 3065 patients were registered for management (10.09%). The managed proportion of SMD cases was higher in the urban areas than in the non-urban areas (P < 0.05).ConclusionSchizophrenia is a key disease for comprehensive care and control of severe mental disorders in Fuzhou. The management of severe mental disorders should focus on poor groups with low educational backgrounds. Drug usage and management are better in urban areas than in non-urban areas, and thus management should be enhanced in non-urban areas. The medication management and case management of patients with severe mental disorders in Fuzhou need further improvements.

Work-Family Challenges for Low-Income Parents and Their Children. Ann C. Crouter & Alan Booth (Eds.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 2004. 304 pp. ISBN 0-8058-5077-5. $32.50 (paper). Based on the 10th national symposium in the Penn State University Family Issues Symposia Series, this volume follows the familiar format for this series: four major papers, each commented on by three discussants, with participants drawn from multiple disciplines. This time the symposium aims to illuminate how work and family affect one another among families with low incomes, and the four key chapters focus on the trends in the distribution of available jobs, by Jared Bernstein, an economist; nonstandard employment schedules, by Harriet B. Presser, a sociologist and demographer; nonparental child care, by Aletha Huston, a developmental psychologist; and problems in transitions from cash welfare to paid employment, by a team of sociologists headed by Susan Clampet-Lundquist. Overall, these lead chapters and discussants' comments provide interesting insights. There is some unevenness in maintaining a focus on families and even on how to define such families. For example, Bernstein discusses employed adults whose individual earnings are low, some of whom are not in families because of the presence of additional adult earners. He looks at those whose wage rates would bring individual earnings to the poverty threshold for a family of four if the worker worked 40 hours a week and 50 weeks a year; in 2001, this threshold is $18,096, earned at $8.70 an hour. Of course, one problem is that many workers at that wage level do not work that many hours each week nor that many weeks, so that they do not actually reach this threshold. And Bernstein argues that in fact there is reasonable consensus that families' consumption needs require 200% of the poverty threshold for their family size. He notes that this does not all have to come from market earnings: tax policies such as the Earned Income Credit, food stamps, health insurance, and housing and child-care subsidies or credits can substantially increase available income. Obviously, our estimates of how many families with children are families, and what their characteristics are, will vary considerably if we look at hourly wage rates of individual workers, total family earnings below poverty thresholds or less than twice the poverty threshold, or total available income after considering earnings, credits, and subsidies (and, seldom mentioned, child support from nonresident parents). Thus, precisely who are low-income families across various authors is often unclear or inconsistent. And as Paula England as well as Lynne Casper and Rosalind King comment, total family earnings crucially depend not just on individual wages but on the sum of wages from a varying number of earners, as well as the number of children in these families, so that Bernstein needs to consider how family composition may combine with labor market characteristics to shape family income adequacy. Nevertheless, Bernstein's focus on jobs actually available, and how many relatively poorly paying jobs versus better paying jobs are out there, provides a needed downward estimate to ideas about how much changing the education or skills of workers can change the percent of workers in poorly paying jobs. …

This paper analyzes the intra-household wage gap and wage determination of husbands and wives under the urban-rural dual economic structure in China. A two-step estimation procedure was used to determine the factors that are related to living in urban or rural areas by employing the probit model. Additionally, the effects of different factors affecting gender wage across regimes and between husbands and wives was examined using the seemingly unrelated regression estimation (SURE) model. It was found that the intra-household gender wage gap is larger in rural areas than in urban areas. At different percentiles, the gender wage gap is also different. There is a larger gender wage gap between low income earners than higher income earners. The largest gender wage gap is in the 10th percentile in rural areas with a wife–husband wage ratio of 67%. The wage determination pattern between spouses is different in urban and rural areas. Except for human capital impact, urban-rural dual economic structure and family factors, spousal factors also effect the intra-household wage gap.

The present study was conducted to identify the effect of urban and natural areas on nesting and breeding success of Rose-ringed Parakeet. Nests of Rose-ringed Parakeet were monitored using a combination of camera surveillance and direct observations along transect lines. Cavity availability and use was compared between natural and urban areas. A total of 171 cavities were located, of which 106 contained active nests. The number of available cavities and the proportion occupied were both higher in natural areas than in urban areas. A uniform/cosine model estimated that mean nest density was greater (P<0.05) in natural areas (136 nests/km2) than in urban areas (130 nests/km2). The preferred trees used for nesting were Banyan Ficus benghalensis (22.8%) followed by Chinaberry Tree Melia azedarach (20.4%), Paper Mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera (14.6%), Chir Pine Pinus roxburghii (14.6%), Southern Blue Gum Eucalyptus globulus (11%), Mango Mangifera indica (9.3%), and White Mulberry Morus alba (12%). The greatest number (P<0.05) of successful breeding cavities was recorded in the middle of trees (42.5%) at heights of 6.1–9 m (72.6%) above ground. Mean cavity depths were significantly greater (P<0.05) in urban areas (9.95±0.5 cm) than in natural areas (8.71±2.1 cm), while mean entrance diameter was 6.19±1.9 cm in natural areas and 5.65±0.2 cm in urban areas. Clutches of five eggs were the most common. Hatchling and fledgling successes were higher in natural areas than urban areas, with egg survival probability (70.0%) and nestling survival probability (94.0%) higher in natural areas than in urban areas (37% and 60%) respectively. It is concluded that the breeding success of Rose-ringed Parakeet varies between urban and natural areas.

Abstract: The first objective of this article is to summarize literature on selected variables that can influence parents' efforts to enhance their parenting skills, including participation in prevention‐oriented education and skills‐training programs. The second objective is to report the results of a survey of rural parents with preadolescents (N=203) on prevention‐relevant parenting beliefs and past parenting enhancement efforts, such as parent education program attendance. Descriptive analyses of these variables and their relationships to socioeconomic status and family composition are reported. Results regarding prevention‐relevant parenting beliefs indicate relatively low levels of perceived susceptibility to adolescent problem behaviors and high levels of perceived parent efficacy in preventing adolescent problems. High levels of past parenting enhancement efforts also were reported. Little evidence of gender differences on the parenting belief and enhancement variables was found, but education, income, and family structure and composition variables were significantly associated with several key parenting belief and enhancement variables.

AimTo describe the family composition and living arrangements of persons diagnosed with coronary artery disease and those relationships to family involvement in self‐managed rehabilitation.DesignA cross‐sectional study.MethodsData were collected with postal questionnaire from persons diagnosed with coronary artery disease (CAD) by using the Family Involvement in Rehabilitation (FIRE) scale. It measures family members' promotion of patients' rehabilitation and issues encumbering rehabilitation in family. Statistical methods were used to analyse the data.ResultsPatients' gender and having children in the family were predictors of issues encumbering rehabilitation in the family. But when examining living arrangements, patients who lived with a spouse or underage children had a better environment for recovery than those who lived alone or with adult children. More attention should be paid to targeting appropriate support for persons with coronary artery disease and their family members during the rehabilitation phase.

Stunting is a chronic growth disorder in children under five that requires evidence-based interventions. To understand the factors that contribute to stunting in different regions of Indonesia, Bayesian Conditional Autoregressive (CAR) modeling was used to estimate the relative risk of stunting. The analysis showed that the Besag-York-Mollié (BYM) model with covariates provided the best results in estimating the risk of stunting. The data for this study were obtained from the 2018 Basic Health Research Survey. In urban areas, immunization coverage has a significant effect on stunting risk, while in rural areas, in addition to immunization, vitamin supplementation coverage and poverty level are also significant factors. Based on the modeling, the region with the highest risk in urban areas is West Sulawesi Province with a relative risk of 1.638, while the lowest is Bali Province with 0.564. In rural areas, Papua Province had the highest risk of 1.820, while North Sulawesi Province had the lowest risk of 0.599. These findings suggest that immunization coverage is instrumental in reducing stunting, both in urban and rural areas. In addition, in rural areas, increasing vitamin supplementation coverage and decreasing poverty levels can help reduce the risk of stunting. Therefore, intervention policies should be tailored to the characteristics of each region to be more effective in addressing stunting in Indonesia.

This paper attempts to show the effect of contact with Western civilization and urbanization on the structure and functioning of the Bantu family system in the Republic of South Africa. The traditional situation is set out and compared with the present- day situation in urban areas. Attention is given to marriage cus- toms, including the custom of lobola, interpersonal relationships within the family, sexual behavior, family composition, family disorganization, and changes in the structure and functioning of the Bantu family. in one empirical survey, but is based on and a synopsis of the research findings of several different empirical studies which were conducted by different researchers during the past 25 years in various urban areas in the Republic of South Africa. As these separate studies did not succeed in giving an overall pic- ture of the change taking place within the family life of the urban Bantu and as a need was felt for such a comprehensive picture, an attempt has been made in this study to construct and deduce such a broad and general pattern of change within the urban Bantu family by combining and comparing the findings of these individual studies. As these studies were done at different times in different places, there were at first misgivings as to the comparability of the material and the possibility of deducing such a general pattern of change. In studying these various reports, it, however, became clear that the main trends apparent in each of them were to a great extent similar and that the possibility of constructing a general pattern of change for the urban Bantu family could be realized.

Research on the link between levels of poverty and homicide in urban areas has persistently reported the existence of a relationship for whites but not for blacks. This is despite the fact that most analysts expect that the higher levels of urban black homicide are due in part to the higher levels of urban black poverty. The present research introduces a more meaningful, spatially based measure of concentrated poverty and argues that the effect of concentrated poverty on homicide rates should be the same for both racial groups. The hypotheses are tested with race-disaggregated data for a sample of central cities circa 1990. The results suggest that, when poverty is measured as a linear spatially based phenomenon, in is a more important determinat of race-specific homicide rates than overall city levels of disadvantage and that the concentration of poverty increases both black and white homicide rather equally.