Impact of organic practices on growth, yield, and greenhouse gas emissions by pea landraces

A diachronic study of greenhouse gas emissions of French dairy farms according to adaptation pathways

This study was conducted to apply LCA (Life cycle assessment) methodology to lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) production systems in Namyang-ju as a case study. Five lettuce growing farms with three different farming systems (two farms with organic farming system, one farm with a system without agricultural chemicals and two farms with conventional farming system) were selected at Namyangju city of Gyeonggi-province in Korea. The input data for LCA were collected by interviewing with the farmers. The system boundary was set at a cropping season without heating and cooling system for reducing uncertainties in data collection and calculation. Sensitivity analysis was carried out to find out the effect of type and amount of fertilizer and energy use on GHG (Greenhouse Gas) emission. The results of establishing GTG (Gate-to-Gate) inventory revealed that the quantity of fertilizer and energy input had the largest value in producing 1 kg lettuce, the amount of pesticide input the smallest. The amount of electricity input was the largest in all farms except farm 1 which purchased seedlings from outside. The quantity of direct field emission of CO2, CH4 and N2O from farm 1 to farm 5 were 6.79E-03 (farm 1), 8.10E-03 (farm 2), 1.82E-02 (farm 3), 7.51E-02 (farm 4) and 1.61E-02 (farm 5) kg kg -1 lettuce, respectively. According to the result of LCI analysis focused on GHG, it was observed that CO2 emission was 2.92E-01 (farm 1), 3.76E-01 (farm 2), 4.11E-01 (farm 3), 9.40E-01 (farm 4) and 5.37E-01 kg CO2 kg -1 lettuce (farm 5), respectively. Carbon dioxide contribute to the most GHG emission. Carbon dioxide was mainly emitted in the process of energy production, which occupied 67～91% of CO2 emission from every production process from 5 farms. Due to higher proportion of CO2 emission from production of compound fertilizer in conventional crop system, conventional crop system had lower proportion of CO2 emission from energy production than organic crop system did. With increasing inorganic fertilizer input, the process of lettuce cultivation covered higher proportion in N2O emission. Therefore, farms 1 and 2 covered 87% of total N2O emission; and farm 3 covered 64%. The carbon footprints from farm 1 to farm 5 were 3.40E-01 (farm 1), 4.31E-01 (farm 2), 5.32E-01 (farm 3), 1.08E+00 (farm 4) and 6.14E-01 (farm 5) kg CO2-eq. kg -1 lettuce, respectively. Results of sensitivity analysis revealed the soybean meal was the most sensitive among 4 types of fertilizer. The value of compound fertilizer was the least sensitive among every fertilizer imput. Electricity showed the largest sensitivity on CO2 emission. However, the value of N2O variation was almost zero.

Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in organic and conventional farming systems in the Netherlands

Effects of the lignite bioorganic fertilizer on greenhouse gas emissions and pathways of nitrogen and carbon cycling in saline-sodic farmlands at Northwest China

The growing societal concern regarding environmental matters has led to the implementation of many environmental measures intended to protect the environment and address global warming by lessening emissions and mitigating climate change. In line with this movement, this study scrutinizes the impact of these environmental measures on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to analyze the cases of Finland and Sweden. More specifically, the study employs the Environmental Policy Stringency (EPS) index as a proxy for environmental measures, explores sector-specific GHG emissions by employing nonlinear quantile-based methodologies (including quantile-on-quantile regression and Granger causality-in-quantiles methods as the primary model and quantile regression for robustness checking) spanning the period from 1991/Q1 to 2020/Q4. The findings show that: (i) EPS lessens GHG emissions from fuel exploitation, industrial combustion, and the power industry sector at lower and middle quantiles in Finland and Sweden; (ii) EPS decreases GHG emissions from processes, transportation, and waste sectors in Finland but increases them in Sweden at higher quantiles; (iii) EPS leads to an increase in GHG emissions from the agriculture and construction sectors at higher quantiles; (iv) EPS has a causal effect on sector-specific GHG emissions across different quantiles; (v) the robustness of the findings is largely confirmed. Hence, the study underscores the varying impacts of EPS on sectoral GHG emissions based on quantiles, sectors, and countries, emphasizing the need for policymakers to adopt environmental policies to comprise these differences and adjust the policy framework accordingly.

Agriculture is a major contributor to climate change, and there is an urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture for mitigation purposes. Modern industrial agriculture has been recognized as a significant source of agricultural GHG emissions, whereas the adoption of regenerative organic agriculture has been proposed as a solution with the potential to reduce GHG emissions from agricultural production. However, there is a lack of on-the-ground studies reporting on the climate impacts of organic agriculture. To remedy this, a carbon footprint (CF) analysis was conducted comparing regionally representative organic and conventional arable cropping systems at Rodale Institute’s Farming Systems Trial in Pennsylvania, USA. Two separate modeling approaches were used to construct CFs for three agricultural systems (two organic and one conventional). The baseline CF analyses used an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Tier 3 model (COMET-Farm) and Tier 2 model (Cool Farm Tool) for comparison purposes. Secondary analyses were conducted on the effects of CO 2 emissions from composting manure on CFs. Emission metrics were generally higher (+27%) using the Tier 3 model compared with the Tier 2 model. In the baseline analysis, absolute area-scaled emissions were highest in the conventional system, ranging from 1.25 to 1.72 tons CO 2 -eq ha −1 yr −1 . In comparison, emissions in the organic manure-based system were 25%–37% lower (0.94–1.09 tons CO 2 -eq ha −1 yr −1 ), while the organic legume-based system had the lowest emissions, which were 52%–74% lower (0.33–0.83 tons CO 2 -eq ha −1 yr −1 ). Yield-scaled emissions of maize in the baseline analyses were highest in the conventional system (0.19–0.26 kg CO 2 -eq kg −1 ), followed by the organic manure (0.13–0.16 kg CO 2 -eq kg −1 ) and organic legume (0.07–0.17 kg CO 2 -eq kg −1 ). Yield-scaled emissions on a feed digestible energy basis were highest in the conventional system (0.014–0.020 kg CO 2 -eq MJ −1 ) but were similar between organic manure (0.009–0.010 kg CO 2 -eq MJ −1 ) and organic legume (0.006–0.015 kg CO 2 -eq MJ −1 ). Including estimates of CO 2 emissions due to composting increased emissions for the manure-based organic system substantially (+103%–122%). Our results imply that regenerative organic farming can help mitigate climate change. Future research should focus on more accurately measuring emissions from compost production and other sources of organic fertility, conducting a full life-cycle assessment of these systems, and verifying the results using in-situ field measurements.

Energy supply utilities release significant amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. It is essential to accurately estimate GHG emissions with their uncertainties, for reducing GHG emissions and mitigating climate change. GHG emissions can be calculated by an activity-based method (i.e., fuel consumption) and continuous emission measurement (CEM). In this study, GHG emissions such as CO2, CH4, and N2O are estimated for a heat generation utility, which uses bituminous coal as fuel, by applying both the activity-based method and CEM. CO2 emissions by the activity-based method are 12–19% less than that by the CEM, while N2O and CH4 emissions by the activity-based method are two orders of magnitude and 60% less than those by the CEM, respectively. Comparing GHG emissions (as CO2 equivalent) from both methods, total GHG emissions by the activity-based methods are 12–27% lower than that by the CEM, as CO2 and N2O emissions are lower than those by the CEM. Results from uncertainty estimation show that uncertainties in the GHG emissions by the activity-based methods range from 3.4% to about 20%, from 67% to 900%, and from about 70% to about 200% for CO2, N2O, and CH4, respectively, while uncertainties in the GHG emissions by the CEM range from 4% to 4.5%. For the activity-based methods, an uncertainty in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) default net calorific value (NCV) is the major uncertainty contributor to CO2 emissions, while an uncertainty in the IPCC default emission factor is the major uncertainty contributor to CH4 and N2O emissions. For the CEM, an uncertainty in volumetric flow measurement, especially for the distribution of the volumetric flow rate in a stack, is the major uncertainty contributor to all GHG emissions, while uncertainties in concentration measurements contribute a little to uncertainties in the GHG emissions.Implications:Energy supply utilities contribute a significant portion of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is important to accurately estimate GHG emissions with their uncertainties for reducing GHG emissions and mitigating climate change. GHG emissions can be estimated by an activity-based method and by continuous emission measurement (CEM), yet little study has been done to calculate GHG emissions with uncertainty analysis. This study estimates GHG emissions and their uncertainties, and also identifies major uncertainty contributors for each method.

Soil properties, crop production and greenhouse gas emissions from organic and inorganic fertilizer-based arable cropping systems

The concept of circular economy has been introduced as a strategy to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from buildings and mitigate climate change. Although many innovative circular solutions exist, the business model is challenged by a lack of environmental data on the circular solutions, and thus the potential benefits are not verifiable. The study assesses the embodied GHG emissions of five circular building elements/components. Circular solutions are compared with conventional solutions to ascertain whether the business model has the potential to reduce GHG emissions. The GHG emissions are quantified using life-cycle assessment (LCA) for five circular-economy and three conventional building elements/components. The environmental data show that circular building components have the potential to reduce GHG emissions. However, there is a risk of increasing the GHG emissions when compared with conventional solutions, emphasising the need for standardised environmental data. Lastly, the study identifies logistic, economic, technological and regulatory barriers that prevent complete implementation of circular economy. Practice relevance Standardised environmental data on building elements/components are needed to support decision-making at local and national levels. Uncertainties about waste from manufacture and transport in the production stage can affect the environmental potential to such an extent that the benefits from introducing circular economy are lost. One central barrier is identified that prevents complete implementation of the circular economy in buildings; the industry is not geared to support a steady supply of some circular building elements/components. In general, it is clear that the implementation of circular economy requires the identification of environmental, logistical, economic, technological and regulatory concerns.

Bioenergy from perennial grasses mitigates climate change via displacing fossil fuels and storing atmospheric CO2 belowground as soil carbon. Here, we conduct a critical review to examine whether increasing plant diversity in bioenergy grassland systems can further increase their climate change mitigation potential. We find that compared with highly productive monocultures, diverse mixtures tend to produce as great or greater yields. In particular, there is strong evidence that legume addition improves yield, in some cases equivalent to mineral nitrogen fertilization at 33–150 kg per ha. Plant diversity can also promote soil carbon storage in the long term, reduce soil N2O emissions by 30%–40%, and suppress weed invasion, hence reducing herbicide use. These potential benefits of plant diversity translate to 50%–65% greater life-cycle greenhouse gas savings for biofuels from more diverse grassland biomass grown on degraded soils. In addition, there is growing evidence that plant diversity can accelerate land restoration. Bioenergy from perennial grasses mitigates climate change via displacing fossil fuels and storing atmospheric CO2 belowground as soil carbon. Here, we conduct a critical review to examine whether increasing plant diversity in bioenergy grassland systems can further increase their climate change mitigation potential. We find that compared with highly productive monocultures, diverse mixtures tend to produce as great or greater yields. In particular, there is strong evidence that legume addition improves yield, in some cases equivalent to mineral nitrogen fertilization at 33–150 kg per ha. Plant diversity can also promote soil carbon storage in the long term, reduce soil N2O emissions by 30%–40%, and suppress weed invasion, hence reducing herbicide use. These potential benefits of plant diversity translate to 50%–65% greater life-cycle greenhouse gas savings for biofuels from more diverse grassland biomass grown on degraded soils. In addition, there is growing evidence that plant diversity can accelerate land restoration.

A multi-objective optimization approach to simultaneously halve water consumption, CH4, and N2O emissions while maintaining rice yield

BackgroundPolicies to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can yield public health benefits by also reducing emissions of hazardous co-pollutants, such as air toxics and particulate matter. Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities are typically disproportionately exposed to air pollutants, and therefore climate policy could also potentially reduce these environmental inequities. We sought to explore potential social disparities in GHG and co-pollutant emissions under an existing carbon trading program—the dominant approach to GHG regulation in the US and globally.Methods and findingsWe examined the relationship between multiple measures of neighborhood disadvantage and the location of GHG and co-pollutant emissions from facilities regulated under California’s cap-and-trade program—the world’s fourth largest operational carbon trading program. We examined temporal patterns in annual average emissions of GHGs, particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds, and air toxics before (January 1, 2011–December 31, 2012) and after (January 1, 2013–December 31, 2015) the initiation of carbon trading. We found that facilities regulated under California’s cap-and-trade program are disproportionately located in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods with higher proportions of residents of color, and that the quantities of co-pollutant emissions from these facilities were correlated with GHG emissions through time. Moreover, the majority (52%) of regulated facilities reported higher annual average local (in-state) GHG emissions since the initiation of trading. Neighborhoods that experienced increases in annual average GHG and co-pollutant emissions from regulated facilities nearby after trading began had higher proportions of people of color and poor, less educated, and linguistically isolated residents, compared to neighborhoods that experienced decreases in GHGs. These study results reflect preliminary emissions and social equity patterns of the first 3 years of California’s cap-and-trade program for which data are available. Due to data limitations, this analysis did not assess the emissions and equity implications of GHG reductions from transportation-related emission sources. Future emission patterns may shift, due to changes in industrial production decisions and policy initiatives that further incentivize local GHG and co-pollutant reductions in disadvantaged communities.ConclusionsTo our knowledge, this is the first study to examine social disparities in GHG and co-pollutant emissions under an existing carbon trading program. Our results indicate that, thus far, California’s cap-and-trade program has not yielded improvements in environmental equity with respect to health-damaging co-pollutant emissions. This could change, however, as the cap on GHG emissions is gradually lowered in the future. The incorporation of additional policy and regulatory elements that incentivize more local emission reductions in disadvantaged communities could enhance the local air quality and environmental equity benefits of California’s climate change mitigation efforts.

Little information exists about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions under perennial bioenergy crops (PBCs) with various N fertilization rates. Our objectives were to evaluate the effect of PBCs receiving various N fertilization rates on N2O and CH4 emissions, GHG balance (GHGB), and yield‐scaled GHGB (YSGB) and compare them with an annual crop from 2012–2013 to 2013–2014 in the northern Great Plains. The PBCs were intermediate wheatgrass (IW, Thinopyrum intermedium [Host] Barkworth and Dewey), smooth bromegrass (SB, Bromus inermis L.), and switchgrass (SG, Panicum virgatum L.), and N fertilization rates were 0, 28, 56, and 84 kg N ha−1. The annual crop was spring wheat (WH, Triticum aestivum L.) with 80 kg N ha−1. The N2O flux peaked immediately after planting, fertilization, intense precipitation (>15 mm), and snowmelt. Cumulative N2O flux was greater for SG than IW and SB with 56 kg N ha−1 in 2012–2013 and with 28–84 kg N ha−1 in 2013–2014. The CH4 flux was not affected by treatments. Carbon sequestration rate at 0–30 cm from 2009 to 2019 was greater for IW than other PBCs. The GHGB and YSGB were greater for SG and SB than IW with almost all N fertilization rates in both years. Comparing PBCs and an annual crop, cumulative N2O flux, GHGB, and YSGB were greater for SG than IW, SB, or WH in 2013–2014. The IW can reduce GHG emissions per unit area and per unit crop yield compared to other PBCs and WH.

Dairy production systems represent a significant source of air pollutants such as greenhouse gases (GHG), that increase global warming, and ammonia (NH3), that leads to eutrophication and acidification of natural ecosystems. Greenhouse gases and ammonia are emitted both by conventional and organic dairy systems. Several studies have already been conducted to design practices that reduce greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions from dairy systems. However, those studies did not consider options specifically applied to organic farming, as well as the multiple trade-offs occurring between these air pollutants. This article reviews agricultural practices that mitigate greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions. Those practices can be applied to the most common organic dairy systems in northern Europe such as organic mixed crop-dairy systems. The following major points of mitigation options for animal production, crop production and grasslands are discussed. Animal production: the most promising options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions at the livestock management level involve either the improvement of animal production through dietary changes and genetic improvement or the reduction of the replacement rate. The control of the protein intake of animals is an effective means to reduce gaseous emissions of nitrogen, but it is difficult to implement in organic dairy farming systems. Considering the manure handling chain, mitigation options involve housing, storage and application. For housing, an increase in the amounts of straw used for bedding reduces NH3 emissions, while the limitation of CH4 emissions from deep litter is achieved by avoiding anaerobic conditions. During the storage of solid manure, composting could be an efficient mitigation option, depending on its management. Addition of straw to solid manure was shown to reduce CH4 and N2O emissions from the manure heaps. During the storage of liquid manure, emptying the slurry store before late spring is an efficient mitigation option to limit both CH4 and NH3 emissions. Addition of a wooden cover also reduces these emissions more efficiently than a natural surface crust alone, but may increase N2O emissions. Anaerobic digestion is the most promising way to reduce the overall greenhouse gas emissions from storage and land spreading, without increasing NH3 emissions. At the application stage, NH3 emissions may be reduced by spreading manure during the coolest part of the day, incorporating it quickly and in narrow bands. Crop production: the mitigation options for crop production focus on limiting CO2 and N2O emissions. The introduction of perennial crops or temporary leys of longer duration are promising options to limit CO2 emissions by storing carbon in plants or soils. Reduced tillage or no tillage as well as the incorporation of crop residues also favour carbon sequestration in soils, but these practices may enhance N2O emissions. Besides, the improvement of crop N-use efficiency through effective management of manure and slurry, by growing catch crops or by delaying the ploughing of leys, is of prime importance to reduce N2O emissions. Grassland: concerning grassland and grazing management, permanent conversion from arable to grassland provides high soil carbon sequestration while increasing or decreasing the livestock density seems not to be an appropriate mitigation option. From the study of the multiple interrelations between gases and between farm compartments, the following mitigation options are advised for organic mixed crop-dairy systems: (1) actions for increasing energy efficiency or fuel savings because they are beneficial in any case, (2) techniques improving efficiency of N management at field and farm levels because they affect not only N2O and NH3 emissions, but also nitrate leaching, and (3) biogas production through anaerobic digestion of manure because it is a promising efficient method to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, even if the profitability of this expensive investment needs to be carefully studied. Finally, the way the farmer implements the mitigation options, i.e. his practices, will be a determining factor in the reduction of greenhouse gas and NH3 emissions.

Sustainability is about ecosystem integrity, social well-being, economic resilience, and good governance. According to the current state of knowledge and development, how does organic agriculture contribute to each of these sustainability dimensions? Sustainability has first been equated with environmental soundness in order to ensure the continued provision of goods and services to present and future generations. Organic agriculture, as defined by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, "is a holistic production management system that avoids use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and genetically-modified organisms, minimizes pollution of air, soil and water, and optimizes the health and productivity of interdependent communities of plants, animals and people." In organic agriculture, limiting external inputs necessitates adaptation to local conditions in order to harness ecosystem services and increase production efficiency. To this end, the main organic strategies include: rotations, diversification and integration of crop, livestock, tree, and fish to the extent possible in order to optimize nutrient cycling; use of local varieties and breeds in order to increase the system resilience to stress; use of biological pest control to enhance predators; and promotion of symbiotic nitrogen fixation and biomass recycling. Organic management is associated with several positive impacts on land and water, including: increased soil fertility and thus, enhanced productivity; better soil structure that increases stability to environmental stress; better soil moisture retention and drainage, which result in 20 to 60% less irrigation requirements; less water pollution and nitrate leaching in groundwater; reduced erosion by wind, water, and overgrazing (currently, 10 million hectares of land is lost annually by unsustainable agricultural practices); and better soil carbon sequestration rates. A new meta-analysis indicates that soil organic carbon stocks were 3.5 metric tons per hectare higher in organic than in non-organic farming systems and that organic farming systems sequestered up to 450 kg more atmospheric carbon per hectare and year through CO2 bound into soil organic matter. Overall, energy use by organic farms may be reduced by one-third, as compared to conventional enterprises, due to more efficiency in biological nitrogen fixation. Existing studies report less energy use on organic farms, from 10-70% in Europe and 29-37% in the USA, with exceptions for some crops. The heart of the matter is that chemical agriculture uses 2 kcal of fossil fuel to produce 1 kcal of food energy. This low energy efficiency is compounded by higher oil prices that lead to higher farm input prices, in addition to peak oil, sooner or later. The energy issue requires more attention to paradigms such as organic agriculture in order to face future food challenges. In line with the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change 4th Assessment Report recommendations for agriculture, organic management addresses climate change through inherent practices such as: crop rotations and farming system design; nutrient and manure management; livestock management, pasture and fodder supply improvement; maintenance of fertile soils and restoration of degraded lands. Requirements imposed on organic agriculture by US and EU regulations reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as follows: abstaining from N-fertilizers use reduces agricultural emissions 10%; the prohibition of intensive animal husbandry in feedlots and requirement for an adequate animal/land ratio prevents intensive methane and nitrous oxide emissions; recommended nutrient management plans result in less nitrous oxides and higher soil carbon sequestration. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) also recommends a prohibition on land clearing, which would avoid deforestation (which alone is responsible for 12% of global GHG emissions); generally, GHG emissions from organic agriculture are always lower than conventional agriculture systems, based on production area. Existing life-cycle analysis (LCA) studies on greenhouse gas emissions per kg of product show that organic plant products and milk perform better than their conventional counterparts, while for organic meat and egg products, better performance is not always ensured. Most importantly, organically managed soils contain higher soil organic content (SOC) (expressed in mass%age), as well as carbon stocks (expressed as absolute masses) than non-organic soils. SOC stocks are key for assessing carbon sequestration potential and organic soils usually have deep rooting with SOC stocks up to 80-cm depth, due to grass-legume mixtures and deep-digging earthworms. Globally, the cumulative advantages of several organic practices (i.e., no use of N-fertilizers, reduced nitrous oxide emissions on farms, and soil carbon sequestration) has a GHG reduction potential from 5.1 to 6.1 GT CO2equivalents. As to climate change adaptation, organic management takes a preventive and precautionary approach through diversification, generally adopted as a risk splitting strategy. In fact, diversified farms go through natural stages of succession that best adapt the agroecosystem to change. Rotational grazing and organic pasture management have huge potential in mitigating climate change. Spatial and temporal integration on organic farms (e.g., agroforesty, hedges, rotations, corralling) represent ecofunctional features conducive to climate-proofing of agroecosystems. Sustainability is also about equity among and between generations. The main contribution of organic agriculture to social well-being is through avoided harm and healthy community development. Avoided harm ranges from loss of arable soil, water contamination, biodiversity erosion, GHG emissions, food scares, and pandemics associated with chemical agriculture, as well as pesticide poisoning of 3 million persons per year resulting in 220,000 deaths, let alone farmers indebtedness for inputs and suicides (e.g. 30,000 deaths in Maharastra, India, from 1997 to 2005). With regards to health, organic food commonly contains 10-60% more healthy fatty acids, organic dairy usually has more omega-3 fatty acids, organic crops tend to have 5-90% more vitamin C and 10-50 more secondary metabolites. Organic foods generally have higher dry matter and mineral content and organic diets seem to be less associated with allergies, with records of more immunity in children and animals. Although scientific evidence is mounting but not yet established, organic diets seem to result in less cancer cell proliferation. Organic farming appears to generate 30% more employment in rural areas and labor achieves higher returns per unit of labor input. By using local resources better, organic agriculture offers dual benefits: it facilitates smallholders access to markets and thus income generation; and relocalizes food production in market-marginalized areas, especially where the hungry and the poor reside. The economic performance of organic systems depends on: previous intensity of conventional management; organic farmers' managerial background and skills; and the suitability of used varieties and breeds to low-input systems. Generally, organic yields are 20% less as compared to high-input systems in developed countries but could be up to 180% higher as compared to low-input systems in arid/semi-arid areas. In humid areas, rice paddy yields are equal, while the productivity of the main crop is reduced for perennials, though agroforestry provides additional goods. Farm profitability depends on: market opportunities and input/output prices; governmental support to agricultural policy; and mostly, farmer's management abilities. Variable organic production costs are significantly lower than conventional production, ranging from 50-60% for cereals and legumes, to 20-25% for dairy cows and 10-20% for horticulture products; this is due to lower input costs on synthetic inputs, lower irrigation costs, and labor cash costs that include both family labor and hired workers. Total costs are, however, only slightly lower than conventional, as fixed costs increase due to new investments during conversion (e.g., new orchards, animal houses) and certification. Lower production costs on organic farms in association with price premiums generally compensate for reduced yields and net returns are similar to or higher than conventional systems in both developed and developing countries. Even without premiums, organic systems may be more economically profitable and, with economy of scale, premiums are less needed since post-harvest and certification costs are bound to decrease with greater quantities. Good governance is ensured in organic systems because transparency and traceability are provided through the organic label. Legal protection of the organic claim ensures fair competition of farmers, as well as protection of consumers and the right to choose. Compliance is ensured with clear environmental and, sometimes, social standards. The food system, from standard definition to labeling, is based on participation and necessary public-private partnerships, whereby smallholders are integrated into highly demanding markets. Last but not least, the diversity of food cultures and traditional knowledge are safeguarded by organic agriculture.