Impact of molluscicidal baits on the survival of biocontrol nematodes in the genus Pellioditis

The German cockroach, Blatella germanica, is a pest of human habitats distributed throughout the world. Boric acid (BA; H3BO3), in the form of powder, pellets, or blocks, has been used to control German cockroaches. Gel baits are also considered highly effective for controlling German cockroach populations. However, BA is not currently available as a gel bait. Thus, the present study was carried out to determine the best concentration of BA to formulate as a gel bait, and measure its direct effectiveness and the horizontal transfer of the active ingredient (AI) through cannibalism in adult German cockroaches (domino effect). Effectiveness of laboratory-prepared BA gel baits (lab baits) was analysed, and the efficacy and horizontal transfer of the most effective lab bait was compared to four commercial baits. Among three tested lab baits, the bait prepared with 40% BA (lab bait A) resulted in significantly greater cockroach mortality and a lower lethal time (LT50) value than other lab baits. When compared with commercial baits, there was no significant difference between lab bait A and BA baits in the amount of bait consumed and the detection time. Similarly, mortality of cockroaches caused by lab bait A was equal to mortality caused by the commercial BA bait. Percentage of bait unfed adult cockroaches killed by transferred BA from lab bait A fed and dead adult cockroaches (secondary mortality) was significantly greater than that caused by both commercial BA bait and fipronil bait.

The relative toxicity of metaldehyde and iron phosphate-based molluscicides to earthworms

The survival and infectivity of the infective juveniles of two species of entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae), were determined after exposure for 72 h to two concentrations of the herbicides glyphosate and MCPA, as well as to the combination of the two herbicides (glyphosate + MCPA). For all herbicide treatments, concentrations and exposure times, S. feltiae was more tolerant to the herbicides than H. bacteriophora. The exposure of entomopathogenic nematodes to glyphosate + MCPA caused significantly higher mortality (26.33–57.33%) than glyphosate (0.67–15%) or MCPA (2.33–19%) alone. These results confirm the synergistic effect of the glyphosate + MCPA combination on the mortality in these nematodes. Nematode infectivity of Galleria mellonella larvae in response to the herbicides presence was evaluated in Petri dish assays containing sterile sand. Nematode infectivity was not significantly reduced by exposure to herbicides in S. feltiae but H. bacteriophora was less tolerant. Synergistic effect was obtained in the nematode mortality test but no synergistic effect was observed in the nematode infectivity assay. Our results suggest that possible synergistic effects of agrochemicals on survival of nematodes should be tested before mixing with entomopathogenic nematodes.

Studies assessing the characteristics of active ingredients (AIs) of toxic baits for leaf-cutting ants are still scarce, although the need for a delayed action of these compounds on adult workers has been well accepted (mortality ≤15% at 24 h and ≥90% at 21 days). Therefore, we determined the insecticidal action of two AIs used in commercial baits, diflubenzuron and dechlorane, over time in workers, and discussed the control of colonies in relation to the existing literature. Dechlorane presented excellent insecticidal activity with a delayed action at all concentrations tested, although its commercial use has been prohibited due to its organochlorine nature. In contrast, diflubenzuron did not cause significant mortality or symptoms of intoxication, indicating that the successful cases reported with the use of baits containing this AI were in fact due to an accidental contamination with dechlorane. We comment about the ineffectiveness of diflubenzuron on alternative targets, i.e., young forms and the mutualistic fungus, supporting the concept that the AI needs to a have a delayed action on adult workers.

Availability of extemporaneous preparations in pharmacies in Latvia: a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the situation and future perspectives According to the international scientific publications published in academic research databases over the last five years, extemporaneous preparations are still prescribed and compounded worldwide. In Europe, America and Australia compositions and compounding technologies of extemporaneous preparations continue to evolve, and new standardized formulations, as well as guidelines and recommendations on safe prescribing and compounding of extemporaneous preparations are being created. In Latvia the oldest pharmacy service, compounding of extemporaneous preparations, has also survived to the present day. However, Latvia has not established its own standardized formulations and official information resources in state language. Until now, it was not known what compositions of extemporaneous preparations are prescribed in Latvia, what specialties of physicians prescribe extemporaneous preparations and what is the sales volume of these medicines. In order to promote cross-border harmonization of processes related to extemporaneous preparations, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted in 2011 and updated in 2016 the document “Resolution on quality and safety assurance requirements for medicinal products prepared in pharmacies for the special needs of patients”. The member states of the Council of Europe are invited to implement this resolution in their national guidelines and legislation. After the adoption of the resolution several studies were carried out to determine how the resolution influenced national laws of several European countries, but there is a lack of such studies in the Baltic States. The study of the current situation in the Baltic States is needed to develop a shared vision across the European Union for processes related to the extemporaneous preparations. The aim of the study was to assess the regulatory framework of extemporaneous compounding and the extent of this service, as well as to collect and analyse the assortment of extemporaneous formulations in Latvian pharmacies, comparing them with German, USA and Australian standardized formulations, and to develop practical recommendations for improving the quality of extemporaneous preparations compounded in Latvian pharmacies and for progressing the field. For the first time information about Latvian extemporaneous formulations became available to the international scientific community. The main results of the dissertation are summarized in five international publications, which allows researchers from other countries to get to know traditions of extemporaneous formulations in Latvia. This thesis summarizes and analyses the assortment of extemporaneous formulations in pharmacies in Latvia and clarifies the sales volume of these medicines. Latvian legislation regulating the compounding of extemporaneous preparations was compared with the requirements of the resolution of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. This thesis revealed specialties of those physicians who prescribed extemporaneous prescriptions most often, the most popular dosage forms, as well as identified how many active ingredients most often were combined in different dosage forms. In order to compare the compliance of the extemporaneous preparations in Latvia with modern European and world practice, the active ingredients, their combinations and excipients identified in the prescriptions for the first time were compared with the professional literature of Germany, the USA and Australia. In order to promote safe and effective prescribing, compounding and dispensing of extemporaneous preparations, practical recommendations were provided to Latvian health care professionals. Before this thesis, even field experts lacked general information on how prescription of extemporaneous preparations has developed in Latvia over the past 30 years. This thesis shows that the compounding of extemporaneous preparations is still offered in all regions of Latvia. The analyzed prescriptions of Latvian physicians contained active ingredients and excipients used in other countries, as well as active ingredients, the use of which in Germany, the USA and Australia is limited and is permissible only in exceptional cases. The obtained results can be used in development of new, evidence-based instructional materials on extemporaneous preparations, as well as in education of health care professionals on safe prescribing, compounding, and dispensing of extemporaneous preparations, and in creation of Latvian standardized formulations.

Leaf-cutting ants (genera Atta and Acromyrmex) are defoliation pests of great agronomic importance. Currently, the most effective control method is chemical using granulated baits containing sulfluramid as a standard active ingredient. In this work, a new protocol was proposed for the synthesis of the encapsulates with chitosan, tapioca, citrus pulp and sulfluramid. A sulfluramid is a pesticide which is used extensively in Brazil for management of leaf cutting ants. The main focus of this work is to use a polymeric combination aligned with the active ingredient that allows the formation of an encapsulated which the ants can transport and incorporate to their nests, being an effective methodology for the death of colonies. The encapsulated makes the active ingredient less available to the environment, but maintains the mortality level similar to the used granulated baits. For this reason, it was proposed to develop a chitosan and tapioca encapsulated for the control of leaf-cutting ants.The presence of sulfluramid in the encapsulated was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The behavioral acts related to the transport and the incorporation of leaf disks and encapsulates were observed utilizing A. sexdens colonies. The encapsulates containing sulfluramid have presented a similar intoxication of A. sexdens workers causing mortality in the same proportion as the commercial baits. The protocol for the synthesis of the encapsulates can be utilized with other substances, as entomopathogenic and parasite microorganisms.

Hodotermes mossambicus (Hagen) is a harvester termite which competes with livestock for natural grazing. Control by baiting is recommended. Field trials in the north-western Orange Free State and south-western Transvaal, Republic of South Africa, showed that the two most commonly used commercial baits, with carbaryl or sodium fluosilicate as the active ingredient, are ineffective in controlling this species. A simple mathematical model was developed to rate the acceptability of grasses as food for the termite colonies. This enabled the attractiveness of the bait carriers as food for termites to be compared with that of the grasses. All five grass species tested had a similar food acceptability value, while both bait carriers were unacceptable as food. Failure of the baits was due to the fact that they were not consumed by the termites. The active ingredients was found to be effective when natural grass was used as the bait carrier. The mathematical model was extended to elucidate the effect of different baits on colony survival. This approach could be further used to rate new baits and their carriers objectively.

Black wattle is planted on 110 000 ha in South Africa, and considered economically important for both private and commercial growers. Black wattle is intensively managed, with protection from abiotic and biotic risk factors forming an important component of any management strategy. Of the various pests and diseases, brown wattle mirid and wattle rust have a negative impact on early wattle growth. Although pesticides have been shown to be effective for their management, the opportunity to combine an insecticide and fungicide in the same tank and applied as a mix would reduce operations. In November 2017 four trials were initiated on contrasting black wattle sites in KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa. Azoxystrobin + tebuconazole (Custodia®) were tested at varying rates, timing (November or January) and in combination with cypermethrin (Kemprin®) for the control of the wattle mirid and rust on different site types. Azoxystrobin + difenoconazole (AmistarTop®) were included as a reference standard, and an untreated control for comparative purposes. Tree growth, tree condition and disease/insect expression assessments over one growing season were used to determine optimum treatments. The fungicides and rates at which they were tested were equally effective for the control of wattle rust. Custodia® when applied at either 1.2 or 2 L ha−1 showed similar trends to AmistarTop® (1 L ha−1) in terms of optimum tree performance/condition, together with fewest wattle rust symptoms. Although there were tree performance benefits associated with the curative application of a fungicide after infestation (January 2018), spraying before infestation (November 2017) provided the greatest benefits. Wattle mirid presence in three trials indicated tree performance benefits when controlled with an insecticide. However, greater benefits were obtained when combined with a fungicide for the control of both wattle mirid and rust. Applying the two as a tank mixture would reduce costs without a noticeable impact on the efficacy for either active ingredient.

Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) significantly reduced yields of greenhouse tomatoes. Plants were sprayed with endosulfan 50 wettable powder, 0.06% active ingredients, at 5-, 10-, and 15-day intervals or were left untreated during the growth of a spring crop. Number of fruits and weight per fruit were recorded from clusters 2–10. Yields from plants sprayed at 5- and 10- day intervals were significantly higher than from untreated plants. Average yields were 628.26, 574.49, 560.34, and 495.25g per cluster for the 3 treatment intervals and untreated plants, respectively. Greenhouse whitefly adults and nymphs were recorded at intervals for 70 and 105 days, respectively. Compared with untreated plants, significantly fewer adults and nymphs were recorded from plants in all spray treatments. Under the conditions of this experiment, if plants were sprayed at 5-day intervals, a commercial grower would increase his gross income by approximately $8000 per acre.

In this issue of the AJRCCM (pp. 105–108), there is an interesting These attributes—demonstrated efficacy in promoting wakePro/Con debate about whether the drug modafinil (Provigil) has fulness, limited and not serious side effects, and lack of abuse a role (1), or not (2), in the management of obstructive sleep potential—suggest that modafinil will be an extremely useful apnea. This is an important debate and the pros and cons are medication. But what will its role be? well laid out by Black (1) and Pollak (2). The current issues Originally, modafinil was approved by the FDA for the treatabout use of modafinil, however, include more than its role in ment of narcolepsy on the basis of expensive multicenter studies sleep apnea. At present it is being proposed that the Food and conducted by its manufacturer, Cephalon (7). Narcolepsy is a Drug Administration (FDA) approve modafinil for the broad life-long condition that usually starts in the teen years or in indication of excessive daytime sleepiness. This raises some intersubjects in their 20s and results in marked excessive sleepiness esting medical dilemmas that are the subject of this essay. (for review, see Overeem and coworkers [11]). It does not, howModafinil is different from previous medications used for wake ever, have a particularly high prevalence, being on the order of promotion, that is, amphetamines and their derivatives. Modafi1 in 2,000 (11). Modafinil has quickly become the drug of choice nil lacks abuse potential (3, 4). There are also major differences for management of sleepiness in narcolepsy. in recovery sleep that follows a period after an animal has been Although modafinil is acceptable for narcolepsy, the current kept awake for prolonged periods by a pharmacologic agent. question concerns whether there are other indications for its With amphetamines, the pressure for sleep (sleep homeostasis) use. This is a subject of considerable media interest, with articles builds up during the induced period of prolonged wakefulness. in The New Yorker and elsewhere, and stories on major national Hence, when amphetamines are stopped, profound amounts of media outlets, such as CNN. The media attention has presumably deep, slow-wave sleep are observed (5, 6). In contrast, when contributed to the already widespread off-label use of modafinil similar studies are done with modafinil, there is limited sleep in the United States, beyond the prevalence of the approved recovery when modafinil is stopped (5, 6). This has led to the indication for narcolepsy. As reported by the Washington Post suggestion that modafinil is somnolytic, and that it must act (12), this media attention led the FDA to write to Cephalon directly to block the sleep-promoting system. in January 2002, warning the company about its promotional Modafinil is a safe compound with only minor side effects materials. The FDA noted that “Provigil is not approved to treat such as headache, which is often transient at initiation of therapy such symptoms as sleepiness, tiredness, decreased activity, lack (7–10). It has been used in France, where it was discovered, for of energy and fatigue.” many years and long-term studies of use reveal a favorable sideAt present, on the basis of studies such as those on patients effect profile (8). with obstructive sleep apnea with residual sleepiness, who were effectively being treated with nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) (9, 10, 13), the potential role of modafinil in other conditions is being considered. Interestingly, regulatory

ABSTRACTIntroduction: Although only a minority of contracepting women rely solely on spermicides, they may soon be the only ongoing female method available without a prescription in the United States. Spermicides are also combined with other methods for additional pregnancy protection and/or lubrication. Nonoxynol-9 (N-9), the active ingredient in most spermicides, is cytotoxic and may increase risk of transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, especially in high-risk women. Amphora (previously called Acidform) is a noncytotoxic spermicide composed of a series of generally regarded as safe compounds, which maintains the acidity of the vagina following coitus to immobilize and kill sperm. Amphora is currently Food and Drug Administration-approved as a vaginal lubricant. Amphora is currently being tested in a multicenter Phase III contraceptive trial.Areas covered: This paper describes key properties of Amphora, including its acid-buffering abilities, viscosity, stability, bioadhesiveness, and tolerability.Expert opinion: Amphora is a nontoxic spermicide that maintains the pH within the vagina at levels less than 5.0 for hours, which immobilizes and kills sperm as well as many sexually transmitted pathogens. If the current clinical trial demonstrates safety, efficacy, and tolerability of Amphora as a contraceptive, it would represent a viable alternative to N-9. Its potential as a microbicide warrants further investigation.

Effects on succeeding crops

NEW DRUGS OFFER a promise of relief from disease and suffering. Consequently, they are of primary interest to the afflicted and of general interest to almost everyone. The lay press rightly recognizes them as newsworthy and issues an almost continuous stream of reports on the development of new remedies. This, in turn, increases interest in spite of the fact that many of these reports are premature, based on hopes rather than on established facts. There is no dearth of subject matter for these publications. During the past decade, and before, the drug industry has introduced each year a plethora of new products. To compete in the marketing of drugs, a pharmaceutical firm must maintain interest in its products. To maintain interest, it helps to have something new to promote, a new story to tell. Most of these new products represent different dosage forms of new drugs, repetition of the same type of products by various firms and new combinations of existing agents. While from 300 to 400 new products may be introduced in a year, only from 10 to 20 percent of these are new chemical substances. Even these may include drugs with minor variations in chemical structure or different salts of an original new drug of varying degrees of significance. In spite of this attrition the development of new drugs results each year in real advances in the field of medicine. Many diseases and conditions for which there was no satisfactory therapy in the not too distant past now respond to some new drug. Examples are the antibiotics, the tranquilizers, and so-called psychic stimulants which have revolutionized care of the mentally ill, agents for the treatment of hypertension, and oral antidiabetic drugs. It has been stated that 90 percent of the prescriptions now written are for drugs unavailable 20 years ago. At the present time the development of new drugs involves a complex procedure in which many individuals of several specialties play a part. Where do new drugs come from? Most of them now are synthesized, wholly or in part, by chemists. Some may, however, be of natural origin, such as extracts of plants or animal tissues. The crude extract may be purified until an active ingredient is isolated in the form of a pure chemical compound, an alkaloid or a hormone, for example. If the chemical structure of this compound can be determined, it may be possible to synthesize it from simple chemicals and then to change the chemical structure in an attempt to obtain more efficacious and safer compounds. Some-

ABSTRACTPurpose: Citrus white snail, Helicella candeharica Pfeiffer (Panpulmonata: Helicidae) is one of the most important orchard pests. In this study, the effectiveness of mineral oil was compared with molluscicide baits such as metaldehyde, ferricole (iron phosphate) and a snail-repellent paint in a commercial citrus orchard in northern Iran to reduce access of citrus white snails to citrus trees.Materials and methods: The number of snails on citrus trees was monitored and counted 10 days after the application of the treatments, and at an interval of 6–8 days up to harvest time.Results: In the first study, the mineral oil and repellent paint treatments reduced a number of snails best. In the second study, using metaldehyde and mineral oil barrier, again the mineral oil barrier reduced snails best. The cost of each treatment during one season per hectare was calculated at 55, 153, 124 and 120 $/ha for mineral oil, iron phosphate, snail-repellent paint and metaldehyde, respectively.Conclusions: Mineral oil is an effective alternative for chemical compounds for reducing access by H. candeharica to citrus trees.

Corynebacterium striatum strains have been increasingly reported as etiological agents of nosocomial infections and outbreaks in industrialized and developing countries. However, there are few studies focused on the virulence potential of C. striatum. A growing body of research supports the use of Caenorhabditis elegans as a model host for investigating the virulence potential of pathogenic bacteria, including corynebacteria. In the present study, chemotaxis behaviour, mortality, and morphological changes were investigated in nematodes infected by four C. striatum strains isolated from different clinical sites, and with different MDR profiles and PFGE types. The results showed chemotaxis of nematodes towards C. striatum. Nematode death (> 60%) was detected from the first day post-infection with all strains tested, but at different levels, independent of biofilm formation on catheter surfaces and differences in growth temperature between nematodes (20°C) and mammals (37°C). C. striatum 2369/II multidrug-resistant (MDR; from tracheal aspirate of a patient undergoing endotracheal intubation) and 1961/III multidrug-sensitive (MDS; urine) strains led to 100% mortality in worms. Survival of nematodes was observed until 4 days post-infection with the C. striatum 1954/IV MDS strain isolated from a surgical wound (13%) and 1987/I MDR strain isolated from a patient with a lower respiratory tract infection (39%). The Dar phenotype was observed post-infection with all MDS and MDR strains except 1954/IV. All strains showed the capacity for bagging formation. Star formation was observed only with strains that led to 100% nematode mortality. In conclusion, C. striatum was found to exert virulence for C. elegans. Variations in nematode morphological changes and levels of mortality indicate differences in the virulence potential of C. striatum independent of clinical isolation site, capacity for biofilm formation, and MDR and PFGE profiles.