Impact of Different Irrigation Systems on Water Quality in Peri-Urban Areas of Gujarat, India

The ever-growing population of India, along with the increasing competition for water for productive uses in different sectors – especially irrigated agriculture and related local water systems and drainage – poses a challenge in an effort to improve water quality and sanitation. In rural and peri-urban settings, where agriculture is one of the main sources of livelihood, the type of water use in irrigated agriculture has complex interactions with drinking water and sanitation. In particular, the multi-purpose character of irrigation and drainage infrastructure creates several interlinks between water, sanitation (WATSAN) and agriculture and there is a competition for water quantity between domestic water use and irrigated agriculture. This study looks at the determinants of the microbiological quality of stored drinking water among households residing in areas where communities use different types of irrigation water. The study used multiple tube fermentation method ‘Most Probable Number (MPN) technique, a WHO recommended technique, to identify thermotolerant fecal coliforms and E. coli in water in the laboratory (WHO 1993). Overall, we found that the microbiological water quality was poor. The stored water generally had very high levels of Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination, 80% of the households had water in storage that could not be considered potable as per the World Health Organization (WHO) standards, and 73% of the households were using a contaminated water source. The quality of household storage water was largely unaffected by the major household socioeconomic characteristics, such as wealth, education level or social status. Households using surface water for irrigation had poor drinking water quality, even after controlling for hygiene, behavioral and community variables. Drinking water quality was positively impacted by proper storage and water treatment practices, such as reverse osmosis. Hygiene and sanitation indicators had mixed impacts on the quality of drinking water, and the impacts were largely driven by hygiene behavior rather than infrastructures. Community open defaecation and high village-household density deteriorates household storage water quality.

Diarrhoeal diseases kill an estimated 2.5 million people each year, the majority being children under 5 years (Kosek et al. 2003). An estimated 4 billion cases annually account for 5.7% of the global burden of disease and place diarrhoeal disease as the third highest cause of morbidity and sixth highest cause of mortality (Pruess et al. 2002). Among children under 5 years in developing countries, diarrhoeal disease accounts for 21% of all deaths (Parashar et al. 2003). By inhibiting normal consumption of foods and adsorption of nutrients, diarrhoeal diseases are also an important cause of malnutrition, leading to impaired physical growth and cognitive development (Guerrant et al. 1999), reduced resistance to infection (Baqui et al. 1993) and potentially long-term gastrointestinal disorders (Schneider et al. 1978). Infectious agents associated with diarrhoeal disease are transmitted chiefly through the faecal-oral route (Byers et al. 2001). A wide variety of bacterial, viral and protozoan pathogens excreted in the faeces of humans and animals are known to cause diarrhoea. Many of these are potentially waterborne – transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated water (Leclerc et al. 2002). Accordingly, a number of interventions have been developed to treat water. These include (i) physical removal of pathogens (e.g. filtration, adsorption and sedimentation); (ii) chemical treatment (e.g. assisted sedimentation, chemical disinfection and ion exchange); or (iii) heat and ultra violet (UV) radiation. Because of the risk of recontamination (Clasen & Bastable 2003), interventions to improve water quality also include steps to maintain the microbiological quality of safe drinking water, such as piped distribution, residual disinfection and improved storage. These efforts are expected to receive additional priority as a result of the United Nation’s commitment to reduce by one-half of the 1.5 billion people without sustainable access to improved water, one of the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals (United Nations 2000), and by the World Health Organization’s steps to accelerate the health gains of safe water to the remaining population by improved treatment and storage of water at the household level (Sobsey 2002). Health authorities generally accept that safe water plays an important role in preventing outbreaks of diarrhoeal disease (Hunter 1997). Accordingly, the most widely accepted standard for water quality allows no detectable level of harmful pathogens at the point of distribution (WHO 1993). However, in those settings in which diarrhoeal disease is endemic, much of the epidemiological evidence for increased health benefits following improvements in the quality of drinking water has been equivocal (Esrey & Habicht 1986; Lindskog et al. 1987; Cairncross 1989). As many of these same waterborne pathogens are also transmitted via ingestion of contaminated food and other beverages, by person-to-person contact, and by direct or indirect contact with infected faeces, improvements in water quality alone may not necessarily interrupt transmission (Briscoe 1984). As a result of this variety of risk factors, interventions for the prevention of diarrhoeal disease not only include enhanced water quality but also steps to (i) improve the proper disposal of human faeces (sanitation), (ii) increase the quantity and improve access to water (water supply), and (iii) promote hand washing and other hygiene practices within domestic and community settings (hygiene). As in the case of studies of water quality, there is a wide range in the reported measure of effect on diarrhoea morbidity of each of these other environmental interventions (Esrey et al. 1985). Even more fundamentally, there are also questions about the methods and validity of studies designed to assess the health impact of such interventions (Briscoe et al. 1986; Imo State Evaluation Team 1989). As part of a larger evaluation of interventions for the control of diarrhoeal disease (Feachem et al. 1983), Esrey et al. (1985) reviewed 67 studies to determine the health impact from improvements in water supplies and excreta disposal facilities (Esrey et al. 1985). The median reduction in diarrhoeal morbidity from improved water quality was 16% (range 0–90%). This compared with 22% for Tropical Medicine and International Health

ABSTRACK Background: Water represents an absolute medium to human life and other living things. However, water can also be the best media of diseases to spread. Therefore, before consumed, water has to be processed drinking to eliminate or degrade impure materials up to the safest level. As water becomes more problematic these days, it attracts the attention of drinking water refill depots to. Furthermore, dringking water that produce is not yet legalized and standardized in terms of its process. This research to know determine factors related to bacteriological quality of drinking water product drinking water refill in Semarang City. Methods :This research was an Explanatory Research. Using observation with a cross sectional approach. Samples are determined with standard error of 10% from 49 depots divided proportionally towards the spreading of depots throughout Semarang city. The variables used are a parameter of the bacteriologic number of coliform, E_Coli germs. Data analysis using Test correlation of kontingensi chi-square to know relation between variable. Results: The result of this research shows the relation to the variables using Chi-square test, it is shown that the condition of standard water and the condition of Bacteria of refill drinking water are C = 0,494, p = 0,0001, consequently Ho rejects it. Correlation test of instrument condition and the bacteriologic quality of refill drinking water showed that when C = 0,178, p = 0,447, Ho accepts it. While correlation test of processing of drinking water and the bacteriologic quality of refill drinking water showed that when C = 0,346, p = 0,035, Ho rejects it. Correlation test of hygienic officer of depot and the bacteriologic quality of refill drinking water shows that when C = 0,263, p = 0,162, so Ho accepts it. And correlation test of DAMIU sanitation and the bacteriologic quality of refill drinking water showed that C = 0,512, p = 0,0001, so Ho rejects it. Conclusions : All depots have not yet met the requirements of producing standard water as requested by Department of Health. The hygienic behavior of workers is still poor. The bacteriologic quality of refill drinking water based on the result of lab. test indicates that 34 samples ( 69,4%) have fulfilled the requirements of standard drinking water but the rest have not yet reached the minimum standard of drinking water. This matter is caused by the standard water which is used, the procedure of processing and the environmental condition of depot. Keyword; drinking water, refill depots, bacteriology quality

Attributes of drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene associated with microbiological water quality of stored drinking water in rural schools in Mozambique and Uganda.

This paper simultaneously explores temporal changes in drinking water quality and practices in peri-urban Peru. A mixed methodology approach was used, which included a household survey (n= 96) and analysis of water samples taken at source (n= 33 2006, n= 64 2007) and from households (n= 51 2006, n= 91 2007), during both the dry (2006) and rainy season (2007). Variations in practices were found, the most important being the type of water being used, but these changes were found to be contextual and linked to the termination of municipal piped water to the community, rather than seasonal. Seasonal changes in quality of ground water sources were found, but the change in the quality of the major water sources used for drinking and cooking were again not seasonal. A relationship between drinking water practices and quality was identified, due to household contamination of water, which was linked to perceived quality of source. Although the results from this study do not establish any link between seasonal drinking water quality and practices, evidence supporting the general hypothesis of this work was uncovered.

Safe drinking water is crucial for human health. However, global challenges such as limited access to WASH (Water Sanitation, and Hygiene) services, water scarcity, and inequities in clean water distribution contribute to poor hygiene and the spread of waterborne diseases, such as diarrhea, dysentery, and cholera. These challenges are particularly prevalent in rural areas of developing countries. This cross-sectional study assessed the microbiological contamination and associated risk factors in drinking water from 270 rural households. The findings were compared to Rwanda's national drinking water quality standards. Overall, 56.7% of water samples met the national pH standards. However, only 21.9% met the microbiological safety criteria for drinking water. Factors significantly associated with the quality of stored drinking water included age of the household head (p = 0.041), education level (p = 0.047), water source (p = 0.018), and water treatment practices (p = 0.023). Logistic regression indicated that older adults were 3.38 times more likely to use unsafe drinking water (95% CI: 1.24–9.24; p = 0.018). These findings highlight the need for regular monitoring of household drinking water quality and the implementation of WASH interventions, such as the treatment of drinking water, to ensure access to safe drinking water.

The quality of drinking water is a key priority from a human health perspective. The present study was conducted to assess the physico-chemical quality of bottled drinking water marketed in Zomba City, Malawi. Seven bottled water brands were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, K, Na, Ca, Mg, NO3-, F-, Cl- and total water hardness using standard methods. The results of the analysis were compared with Malawi Standard (MS) 560 for natural mineral water, MS 699 for bottled water other than natural mineral water, and the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water. The results showed that EC, TDS, Cl-, NO3-, F-, K, Na, Ca, and Mg in all the bottled water brands complied with MS 560, MS 699, and WHO guidelines for drinking water. Further, four bottled water brands had their mean pH below the minimum MS 560 and MS 699 value of 6.5. Comparison of the analyzed water quality parameters with the reported label values showed considerable variation in both exaggeration and undervaluing. This study has also shown that all brands had low fluoride content as compared to recommended levels by MS 560 and MS 699. The paper suggests the need for strict monitoring to check bottled water quality compliance.

the bacteriological quality of drinking water plays a critical role in preventing waterborne diseases. In Ghana, there is water scarcity and many communities depend on contaminated water sources for their domestic use. This study aimed to assess the bacteriological quality of household drinking water in both cholera endemic and non-endemic areas in Greater Accra Region. a community-based cross-sectional comparative survey in cholera endemic and non-endemic communities was conducted. A total of 480 drinking water samples were collected. The membrane filtration technique was used for the quantification of coliform counts and Vibrio counts. The bacteria were further identified and characterized. The Kruskal Wallis rank test was used to determine any significant variations in the means of the log-transformed bacteria counts among specific factor variables. drinking water samples were contaminated with coliform counts exceeding the zero colony-forming units per 100 ml standard in most communities across cholera endemic and non-endemic areas. Vibrio counts were detected in all household water stored in vessels. Further characterization identified predominantly Klebsiella pneumonia and Escherichia coli. The coliform contamination levels were significantly higher in water stored in vessels compared to water directly obtained from the source. The contamination levels were generally higher during the wet season than the dry season. the household's stored drinking water and direct water sources were highly contaminated with coliform bacteria, posing a significant risk for the transmission of pathogenic waterborne diseases. Therefore, the need to implement an effective water treatment strategy to improve the quality of drinking water.

The aim of the present study was to assess the drinking water quality in the selected urban areas of Lahore and to comprehend the public health status by addressing the basic drinking water quality parameters. Total 50 tap water samples were collected from groundwater in the two selected areas of district Lahore i.e., Gulshan-e-Ravi (site 1) and Samanabad (site 2). Water samples were analyzed in the laboratory to elucidate physico-chemical parameters including pH, turbidity, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, magnesium hardness, and calcium hardness. These physico-chemical parameters were used to examine the Water Quality Index (WQI) and Synthetic Pollution Index (SPI) in order to characterize the water quality. Results of th selected physico-chemical parameters were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines to determine the quality of drinking water. A GIS-based approach was used for mapping water quality, WQI, and SPI. Results of the present study revealed that the average value of temperature, pH, and DO of both study sites were within the WHO guidelines of 23.5 °C, 7.7, and 6.9 mg/L, respectively. The TDS level of site 1 was 192.56 mg/L (within WHO guidelines) and whereas, in site 2 it was found 612.84 mg/L (higher than WHO guidelines), respectively. Calcium hardness of site 1 and site 2 was observed within the range from 25.04 to 65.732 mg/L but, magnesium hardness values were higher than WHO guidelines. The major reason for poor water quality is old, worn-out water supply pipelines and improper waste disposal in the selected areas. The average WQI was found as 59.66 for site 1 and 77.30 for site 2. Results showed that the quality of the water was classified as “poor” for site 1 and “very poor “ for site 2. There is a need to address the problem of poor water quality and also raise the public awareness about the quality of drinking water and its associated health impacts.

The Lancet Commission on water, sanitation and hygiene, and health

Water pollution is a primary environmental concern in Pakistan due to its serious health effects. Over more than 1.25 million people in the Swat district rely on surface and groundwater sources for drinking, agricultural purposes. Hence, the need to ascertain the drinking water quality and associated human health risks were considered highly significant. In this study, eighty water samples (40 for chemical parameters and 40 for biological parameters) were randomly collected from schools and colleges at Mingora city, district Swat. The mean values of physico-chemical water quality parameters such as pH (6.3), TDS (410.7 mg/l), EC (709.7), temperature (25.83 °C), turbidity (0.47 NTU), alkalinity (104.8 mg/l), salinity (910.0 mg/l), total hardness (348.15 mg/l), dissolved oxygen (DO) (2.35 ppm), chlorine (5.4 mg/l), fluoride (1.12 mg/l), nitrate (NO3) (44.52 mg/l) and nitrite (NO2) (4.05 mg/l) were measured using standard methods recommended by World Health Organization and the American Public Health Association. Besides, the mean value of total coliform bacteria, including fecal coliform, was found; (0.32) with standard deviation; (0.572) whereas, the mean value of Escherichia coli was found (0.3) with a standard deviation of (0.564). This study also finds the drinking water sources highly contaminated by fecal coliform bacteria, including Escherichia coli, which is the main reason for many waterborne diseases such as gastroenteritis, dysentery, and diarrhea. Additionally, residents of the area also reported some instances of viral hepatitis. Moreover, the significant variations among various water quality parameters were attributed to growing urbanization trends, nearby agricultural runoffs, lack of proper sewerage/solid waste disposal systems, and direct discharge of waste effluents containing human and animal fecal material. Hence, the need for adequate education on health hygiene and water treatment practices was highly recommended. Similarly, the execution of routine drinking water quality monitoring by relevant organizations was considered indispensable.

Primary school children in the developing world often lack potable water, which may result in a high burden of water-related diseases and poor school performance. The present study aimed to characterize the drinking water quality in primary schools of Pakistan. We used a multistage random-sampling method to select 425 primary schools from selected districts of Sindh province. Standard methods were used to characterize water quality. The results were compared with maximum acceptable values recommended by the Pakistani National Environmental Quality Standards (Pak NEQS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water quality standards. Groundwater (62%) and surface water (38%) were identified as two major drinking water sources in the selected schools with varying levels of water quality. Among all parameters, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, and nitrate remained within WHO and Pak NEQS water quality standard limit, while total dissolved solids (TDS) (33%), electrical conductivity (EC) (46%), chloride (34%), turbidity (27%), and hardness (11%) samples exceeded standard limits. All dissolved salts had moderate to strong positive correlations with TDS and EC values. Based on a water quality index (WQI), 74% of primary schools had access to excellent or good quality drinking water compared to 26% of schools that had access to either poor, very poor or unsuitable drinking water. Among all three regions, more schools from South Sindh had either poor, very poor or unsuitable drinking water (33%) compared to the Central (25%) and North zones (15%). Hence, water from these locations is unfit for human consumption and these schools need better water quality management plans to stop the spread of water-related diseases in primary school children.

Assessment of drinking water quality and rural household water treatment in Balaka District, Malawi

A total of 16 people died and over 500 people were hospitalized due to diarrhoeal illness in the Bholakpur area of Hyderabad, India on 6th May 2009. A study was conducted with immediate effect to evaluate the quality of municipal tap water of the Bholakpur locality. The study consists of the determination of physico-chemical properties, trace metals, heavy metals, rare earth elements and microbiological quality of drinking water. The data showed the variation of the investigated parameters in samples as follows: pH 7.14 to 8.72, EC 455 to 769 μS/cm, TDS 303.51 to 515.23 ppm and DO 1.01 to 6.83 mg/L which are within WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. The water samples were analyzed for 27 elements (Li, Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sb, Ba and Pb) using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentrations of Fe (0.12 to 1.13 mg/L), Pb (0.01 to 0.07 mg/L), Cu (0.01 to 0.19 mg/L), Ni (0.01 to 0.15 mg/L), Al (0.16 to 0.49 mg/L), and Na (38.36 to 68.69 mg/L) were obtained, which exceed the permissible limits of the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water quality guidelines. The remaining elements were within the permissible limits. The microbiological quality of water was tested using standard plate count, membrane filtration technique, thermotolerant coliform (TTC), and most probable number (MPN) methods. The total heterotrophic bacteria ranged from 1.0 × 10(5) to 18 × 10(7 )cfu/ml. Total viable bacteria in all the water samples were found to be too numerable to count and total number of coliform bacteria in all water samples were found to be of order of 1,100 to >2,400 MPN index/100 ml. TTC tested positive for coliform bacteria at 44.2°C. All the water samples of the study area exceeded the permissible counts of WHO and that (zero and minimal counts) of the control site (National Geophysical Research Institute) water samples. Excessively high colony numbers indicate that the water is highly contaminated with microorganisms and is hazardous for drinking purposes. Bacteriological pollution of drinking water supplies caused diarrhoeal illness in Bholakpur, which is due to the infiltration of contaminated water (sewage) through cross connection, leakage points, and back siphoning.

The compromised drinking water quality in primary schools can lead to various health issues, particularly among children, as they are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of contaminants. The present study was conducted to assess the drinking water quality and its social and environmental implications among 274 primary schools in suburban and rural Punjab, Pakistan. Eighteen cities were selected for sampling purposes, and results were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Results showed that electrical conductivity (14.60%), total dissolved solids (10.95%), total hardness (16.06%), chloride (29.56%), fluoride (12.04%), nitrate (16.42%), chromium (7.30%), nickel (8.39%), and arsenic (10.95%) exceeded the WHO recommended range. Additionally, 36% of the water samples were contaminated with total coliforms, indicating significant health risks. The Drinking Water Quality Index (DWQI) analysis indicated that 38% of the water samples were classified as good, 41% as fair, 16% as poor, 4% as very poor, and 1% as unsuitable for drinking. These results suggest that the overall water quality is not suitable for safe consumption. Sensitivity analysis using Monte Carlo simulation indicates nitrate, pH, and turbidity as the most critical parameters influencing water quality, emphasizing the need for targeted management strategies. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was used to determine willingness to pay (WTP) for improved drinking water quality, which was PKR 975 per school (approximately USD 3.51). ANOVA, chi-square, Cramér's V, and linear regression tests, with a p-value < 0.05, revealed that social factors (operational budget and education level) significantly affected the willingness to pay for improved drinking water. These findings underscore the urgent need for immediate measures to improve drinking water quality. Despite socio-economic disparities, there is a notable willingness to invest in water quality improvements. Immediate policy actions and targeted interventions are essential to ensure safe drinking water and protect public health. Future research should explore more effective water purification methods and strategies to enhance public awareness and engagement in water safety initiatives.