Impact of COVID in Agriculture

Household and Community Gardens Surge in the Philippines and Senegal during COVID-19

Ketika wabah Covid-19 terus menyebar di seluruh dunia, maka penting untuk menanggapi dampak yang ada dan yang terjadi pada sektor pertanian, baik dari perspektif penawaran dan permintaan pangan. Sangat penting untuk memastikan bahwa rantai pasokan pangan global dan nasional terus berfungsi dalam memastikan ketersediaan pasokan pangan. Dusun Lepak desa Lepak, kecamatan Sakra Timur, Lombok Timur NTB merupakan salah satu daerah dengan profesi petani yang paling dominan. Para petani di dusun Lepak mengeluhkan hasil pertaniannya yang terus menurun diakibatkan oleh adanya wabah Covid-19 yang semakin menyebar. Dan ada pula petani yang tidak merasakan dampak dari adanya wabah Covid-19 ini. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, peneliti ingin mengetahui pengelompokan petani di dusun Lepak berdasarkan dampak Covid-19 yang terjadi pada sektor pertanian. Berdasarkan hasil analisis hirarki clustering yaitu centroid linkage dengan mengambil 3 clustering dapat disimpulkan bahwa clustering petani berdasarkan dampak Covid-19 yang terjadi pada sektor pertanian dalam cluster 1 jumlah aggota terdapat 1 orang petani cluster 2 terdapat 18 orang, dan cluster 3 terdapat 17 orang. Jadi, cluster dengan jumlah petani terbanyak adalah cluster 2 dan 3. Berdasarkan hasil clustring tersebut, artinya banyak petani di dusun Lepak merasa dirugikan akibat wabah Covid-19 ini, namun tidak sedikit petani juga merasa bahwa Covid-19 ini tidak terlalu mempengaruhi hasil pertanian mereka.

Agricultural, manufacturing and service sectors are major pillars of India’s economy, contributing to employment, innovation, food security and trade. The contribution of the agricultural sector to India’s GDP stands at 18.2 per cent in comparison to 17 per cent and 55 per cent of the contribution made by manufacturing and service sectors, respectively. The growth of these three sectors has driven structural changes in the Indian economy, highlighting the need to understand the contribution of each sector in economic growth in India. Moreover, early research has undermined the role of manufacturing sector as a key contributor in India’s economic growth, indicating a gap in the literature. This paper attempts to find out the key drivers of economic growth of India out of three sectors of the economy - agriculture, manufacturing and service. To achieve this objective, the study employs the ARDL bounds testing approach using annual data spanning from 1960 to 2023. In the ARDL model, real GDP is taken as the dependent variable, while the shares of agriculture, manufacturing and service sectors in GDP are considered as the main independent variables. Additionally, five control variables are used. These are: government expenditure; gross capital formation, inflation, trade openness and population growth rate. The results of the ARDL bounds test confirm the existence of a long-run relationship between India’s real GDP and the explanatory variables. The findings further reveal that gross capital formation, trade openness and government expenditure exert positive and significant impact on economic growth, whereas the population growth and inflation exert negative and significant effect on economic growth. The most notable result is that the coefficient of the service sector’s share in GDP is positive but statistically insignificant, suggesting that the service sector has reached a level of saturation and no longer serves as a major driver of India’s economic growth. In contrast, the manufacturing sector’s share in GDP shows a positive and significant impact on economic growth, indicating that manufacturing has emerged as the main engine of economic growth of India in the current context. Similarly, the impact agricultural sector’s share on economic growth is also positive and significant, highlighting its renewed importance as a growth driver, particularly in the post-COVID-19 period. Thus, the study suggests that among the three sectors of Indian economy, the effect of manufacturing sector on economic growth is the highest, therefore it can be considered as engine of economic growth of India, followed by agriculture sector. As the manufacturing sector has the major contribution in economic growth, it is recommended that the government should focus on efficiently implementing policies such as Make in India and Startup India to strengthen this sector.

The COVID-19 pandemic, as one of the biggest health crises in the last decades, has disruptive impacts in all spheres of human life, including social, environmental, psychological, and political ones. Nevertheless, the most severely affected was and still is the economic sector of countries across the world. One of the major pillars of global economies is the agricultural sector due to its significance in ensuring continuity in food supply and at the same time developing operating business models oriented on sustainability. For achieving these purposes, operating business models had to undergo serious reinventions often supported by digital technologies. In this paper, the impact of COVID-19 on the operating dimensions in agriculture is investigated to gather insights on digital technology implementations, as reported in scientific publications regarding agriculture and its sub-sectors. This research aims to create a conceptual and theoretical framework for investigating the influence of COVID-19 pandemic and technology-related changes that had to be done in the agricultural sector due to its impact.

Some of the most important interactions between human society and the environment occur in the agricultural sector. Agricultural production is – more than most other economic activities – affected by socio-economic and environmental conditions. Human demand for food effectively drives production and land use patterns. With respect to climate, agriculture acts as a source and a sink of greenhouse gases at the same time. The complex linkages between food production, land use and climate change can only be understood in a long-term, interdisciplinary framework. However, there is still a lack of consistent modelling approaches which take spatial variations of environmental conditions into account and represent biophysical as well as socio-economic driving forces over several decades into the future. From an economic perspective, the importance of agriculture varies according to the level of economic development. In poor countries, agricultural and food production contributes a major share to GDP and is an important source of employment and household income. Many economists claim that there is no way out of poverty, except through agricultural and rural development (McCalla, 1999). In the process of economic development, the role of agriculture is decreasing, and in rich industrialised countries the share of agriculture in GDP and overall labour force is now below 5%. These trends occur despite wideranging government interventions to achieve the contrary. Like most economic sectors, agriculture is also strongly affected by macroeconomic conditions, lifestyles changes and consumption patterns. From an environmental point of view, agriculture is of key importance in rich and poor countries, regardless of the level of economic development. On a global scale, agricultural production accounts for about 40% of total land use, and about 70% of all freshwater withdrawals. It also affects important nutrient cycles, contributes significantly to climate change through emissions of methane and nitrous oxide, and it is considered one of the most important causes for

The agricultural sector is one of the most important sectors of the national economy, as its efficiency can determine the overall state of the country’s economy and has a decisive impact on food supply levels and the well-being of the population. Therefore, studying ways to increase labor productivity in agricultural enterprises is particularly important. It determines the pace of expanded reproduction in these enterprises and the full satisfaction of the population’s demand for agricultural products. This is especially relevant in the context of strengthening the country’s food security and pursuing an import substitution policy. Currently, labor productivity in Azerbaijan’s agricultural sector is low compared to that of other countries. The main reasons for this include a lack of qualified personnel, underdeveloped production culture, and insufficient advancement in technology and digitization. Therefore, the primary priority today is to address and eliminate these issues. Relevance of the topic. At present, increasing labor productivity in local enterprises, including agricultural enterprises, is receiving significant attention. In this context, the role of innovations must be given special consideration. The application of innovations in agricultural enterprises primarily involves the use of new technologies, more productive breeds and plant varieties, and biotechnologies that enable the production of higher-quality, more beneficial products. It also includes the introduction of new technical means for soil cultivation, the cleaning and storage of raw materials, energy-saving technologies in production, and environmental innovations that enhance productivity, minimize costs, and ensure environmental safety. Given these advantages, the application of innovations plays a crucial role in increasing labor productivity. Therefore, conducting research in this direction has become increasingly urgent and necessary. The purpose of the article is to study the role of innovations in increasing labor productivity in agricultural enterprises. It also aims to explore the directions of innovation-oriented development in these enterprises, as well as the main forms, methods, and mechanisms of state stimulation. The article highlights the development of innovation policy and the achievement of its strategic goals as key conditions for increasing labor productivity in the agricultural sector. These strategic goals include enhancing national competitiveness through innovations—particularly those that are directly relevant to agricultural producers—and identifying and supporting high-tech sectors that can drive rapid economic growth. Research methods. general scientific analysis and synthesis, grouping, generalization, factor analysis, economic-statistical analysis, comparative analysis, development dynamics Scientific innovation. The article examines the specific features of the innovation process in agricultural enterprises compared to other sectors of the economy. It explores the ways of increasing labor productivity in these enterprises and identifies the advantages brought by innovation. It is argued that one of the key benefits of innovation is its ability to enhance the efficiency and productivity of agricultural enterprises. Through innovative technologies and methodologies, these enterprises can reduce costs, increase productivity, and optimize their production activities. The article emphasizes that innovation has always been a driving force behind progress and success in various sectors of the economy—and the agricultural sector is no exception. As the global population continues to grow, so does the demand for food and other agricultural products. To meet this increasing demand, agricultural enterprises must enhance their competitiveness, and one of the most effective ways to do so is through innovation.

Supply and demand management of Hirmand water resources is one of the most important problems faced by policymakers and they will not be able to manage this sector properly without specifying the future prospects of the Hirmand Area. The main objective of the research is to allocate water resources in the Hirmand Area by using dynamic optimization models in the agricultural and household sectors. The method of this research is based on the applied scientific method. The required statistics and information are obtained by the library method. In this research, the water demand functions in the agricultural and household sectors are achieved. The general objective function for determining the allocation is estimated by the EVIEWS and GAMS software packages. The results showed that for the agricultural sector, water demand is inversely related to water price, so that when the water price increases by 1%, the product will have a negative value decrease by 4.4%. Moreover, since in this model, the demand function for water is only a function of the price, the return to the scale is decreasing and the Isoquant Curve in the agricultural sector has a negative technical substitution rate in all aquatic conditions. In household demand, the results showed that with the increase in water price, consumption decreases and that the rise in price is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for reducing consumption. The average consumption based on the current trend is 12.42 m3 per month for each household. The reaction in the amount of demand change versus the change in the number of stormy days is positive and equal to 0.39.

Sectoral growth and carbon dioxide emission in Africa: can renewable energy mitigate the effect?

Linking physical water consumption with virtual water consumption: Methodology, application and implications

Post-harvest losses and food shortage has remained endemic to most Sub-Saharan African communities. The reality of COVID-19 in these countries has unfurled the weakness of agricultural sector in containing long lasting effect of such natural disaster. In most developed countries, the impact of COVID-19 is minimal on the agricultural sector because of their functional robust food supply chain structure unlike most developing countries. The effort of most African countries in this sector is yet to come to fruition; this will not happen without sustainable agricultural mechanization. This would further enhance food supply chain mechanism in the agricultural sector. In this paper, the impact of COVID-19 on food supply in Nigeria was discussed, as well as the proffered approaches in combating similar future disaster.

Agriculture is the activities we carry out in a specific biological and socio-economic environment in order to obtain animal and plant products necessary for our lives. The Agricultural Sector includes all processes regarding the processing, preparation and delivery of all nutritional products (agricultural products, aquaculture, mineral water, yeast, forest products, etc.) to be used directly or indirectly (raw materials) in human and animal nutrition. It is a sector with a wide range of employment. The Covid-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on the agricultural sector, from growing and harvesting agricultural products, from logistics services to delivery to the end consumer. The high risk of disease transmission also caused consumers to be more sensitive about food safety, but supply and demand imbalances were experienced in food supply with the closing of the borders. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry during the epidemic; to veterinarians, livestock businesses, farmers, bread and bakery products businesses, etc. prepared special brochures containing covid-19 measures and carried out routine inspections. Turkey, where many agricultural products grown in different climatic conditions, is a country with a geopolitical importance. If the young population potential is evaluated in the agricultural sector by using modern agricultural methods, it will be a country that has a say in the agricultural sector in the world.

The aim of the paper is to recognize the level of employment and gross value added (GVA) in agriculture in relation to the other sectors of the European Union economy. The following research tasks were formulated: analysis of employment levels and GVA in the sectors of economy in 2000 and 2018 as well as the relationship between employment and GVA, assessment of GVA per 1 person employed in the investigated sectors and its changes in the analysed years, and assessment of the scale of surplus employment in agriculture assuming that GVA per 1 person employed in this sector would be equal to the average level reached in the industry and the services sectors. Comparative analysis and the deduction method were used in the study. Correlation coefficients between the level of employment in individual sectors and GVA per 1 person employed in the time series covering the years 2000–2008 were also calculated. A new measure of the “goal” of employment reduction in agriculture has been proposed, related to the measurement of the distance between agriculture and other sectors in terms of GVA generated per 1 employed—the Excess Employment Rate In The Agricultural Sector (EERAS). The research was based on EUROSTAT data from the years of 2000 and 2018. The process of changes in the sectoral structure of employment will probably be determined by the growth rate of demand for services, structural adjustment referring to matching the characteristics of the agricultural population to the demand for labour force in the services sector and the pace of structural transformations in rural areas. Rationalisation of employment levels in agriculture promotes improvement of its economic and social sustainability. Instruments based on financial transfers from nonagricultural sectors to agriculture should play a secondary role, since they are a burden to more efficient sectors, and in the long term, they may hinder reduction of employment in agriculture. However, due to the inevitable differences in productivity observed between agriculture and the nonagricultural sectors, at a technologically, economically, ecologically and socially justified level of employment in agriculture, transfers of the surplus generated in the secondary and tertiary sectors need at least to reduce, if not eliminate, economic consequences of these differences.

Nigerian government embarked on various banking reforms over a period of three decades with the aim of enhancing competitiveness in financial services, promoting investment, and ensuring efficiency in resource allocation to the real sector and other sectors of the Nigerian economy. One sector of the Nigerian economy that has remained of paramount interest to the government is the agricultural sector. Since the country attained political independence in 1960, the agricultural sector has remained the mainstay of the Nigerian economy contribution significant to GDP and employment generation. Despite the increased role of the agricultural sector in providing the much-needed inputs and raw materials needed for improved productivity in other sectors of the economy, not much has been done in the area of tracking and evaluating the success of discretional credit allocation and commercial bank lending to the agricultural sector. This study examined the impact of the increased discretionary allocation of credit to the private sector due to the banking sector reforms and the various directed funding programs by the regulatory authority on agricultural output in Nigeria over the period of 1986-2013. The study used time series data sourced from World Bank and the Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin. The method applied to test the impact of banking sector reforms and agricultural sector credit supply on agricultural sector output in Nigeria was the impulse response functions and the variance decomposition of Vector Error Correction Model (VECM). Impulse response function explains the reaction of an endogenous variable to one of the innovations while the variance decomposition gives information on the relative importance of each random innovation. The results revealed that both the banking sector reforms and credit supply to agricultural sector have positively affected agricultural output in Nigeria. However, the impact of agricultural credit supply on agricultural output proved to be very weak and insignificant. This study suggests that the discretionary allocation of credit particularly by the monetary authorities or the banking sector, may not necessarily achieve the goal of massive growth in the agricultural sector. There is an urgent need for the Federal Government to embark on institutional and infrastructural reform to remove the various credit supply bottlenecks and make the financing of the agricultural sector more productive.

Central American (CA) countries are considered to be part of the developing world. Their small and open economies have historically relied on the production and exports of agricultural products. In the last two decades, even though the share of agriculture in the GPD has declined significantly facing the surge in shares of manufacturing and service sectors, agriculture remains as one of the major economic activities in the CA countries. Agricultural sector employs a large portion of the economically active population and is an important source of income, particularly for rural and unskilled labor force. Significantly diversified economic performance has been observed among the seven CA countries during the past decades. Among them, Costa Rica and Panama are the most developed in terms of per capita GDP and outperformed the other five countries in various social-economic indicators, whereas Honduras and Nicaragua are the least developed. Identifying the sources contributing to observed differences among the CA countries has important implications for policy makers in their pursuit of economic growth. Therefore, this thesis attempts to examine two important issues for the seven CA countries – economic diversification and its link to economic growth as well as sectoral productivity differences – during the period 1990-2010. We first examine the economic diversification and its possible relation to economic growth. In the second part of the thesis, we then move to analyze the factors leading to differences in the labor productivity of industrial and agriculture sectors. According to Esanov (2012), economic diversification can be categorized into the product or export diversification. Both these two types of diversification are considered to enhance economic growth. To measure diversification, the trend of GDP composition by sector is used as a measure of product diversification while Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) is calculated to measure export diversification. The empirical results in this study suggest that the diversification strategy in the CA region is country-specific, Costa Rica and Panama experienced significant achievements while the other five countries seem to be lagged. Export diversification has been achieved mostly within the same agricultural sector but not among sectors; CA countries have introduced new export products into their export basket, but those new products mainly come from agricultural sector. In addition, the levels of diversification experienced by the CA countries are significantly lower compared to the developed economies. Based on regression analysis controlling for year and country specific unobserved characteristics, this study provides empirical evidence supporting the positive association of export diversification and per-capita-GDP growth. In the second part of the thesis, determinants contributing to observed differences in labor productivity between the industrial and agriculture sectors are analyzed through a two-stage regression model. The data collected indicates that, during 1990-2010, the level of labor productivity in the industrial sector has been higher and growing at a greater speed in comparison with the agricultural sector. A systematic review of the literature suggests that this sectoral productivity gap can be explained by variables such as physical capital investment, openness of the economy, foreign direct investment (FDI) as well as education (human capital). To test the hypothesis that those variables have a greater effect in industrial sector than in agricultural sector, which consequently implies a wider gap in labor productivity, a structural equation model is constructed. The specification in our econometric model explicitly considers possible problem of endogenous explanatory variable. The regression results suggest physical capital investments, openness and education are the major drivers to widen up the gap of labor productivity in the industrial and agriculture sectors. As a reasonable proxy for knowledge spilled into the CA countries from the developed countries, FDI is found to have a diminishing effect on productivity differences; it is a determinant of productivity differences at low level of FDI, but it reduces the productivity differences at large enough level of FDI inflow. Study sectoral labor productivity differences is of special significance in Central America, because these countries have labor-intensive economies and both agricultural and industry sectors together employ a large share of the economically active population. Due to its small share in the world economy, Central America has often been left out in researches on topics related to economic growth. To the best of our knowledge, there has not been previous literature on economic diversification and sectoral productivity differences in the CA countries as a whole. In this regard, this thesis fills in the gap and thus represents a significant complement to literature on the region.

IntroductionThe economy of Pakistan is the 27th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), and 47th largest in terms of nominal GDP. Pakistan has three main sectors in his economy which encompasses agriculture sectors, services sector and industrial. Pakistan’s economy is in a downward spiral and is passing through a period of slow growth, mainly on account of security challenges, political instability, natural disasters, weak global economy and energy crisis. Pakistan’s economy is mostly dependent on agriculture sectors throughout of his independent. The importance of the agriculture sector increases manifold because of its strong influence over demand for industrial goods and services. Because of the devastating floods for two three consecutive years has ruined agriculture sector badly. Textile sector is also dependent on agriculture sector. Textile industry has been growing through one of the toughest periods in recent years because of sever energy crisis, low international demand. There are many other industries are also dependent of agriculture sectors. Sustained growth in services sector is an important drive of overall economic growth of an economy. The development experiences manifest that the services sector not only engenders growth in agricultural and manufacturing sectors but also results into greater economic integration with the development world. The services sector in Pakistan has also posited considerable growth episodes over the last decade and now claims the largest share in GDP. In last few years terrorist attacks has damaged the services sector badly in Pakistan. These economic conditions of Pakistan have great impact on foreign direct investment in the country, which is decreasing very sharply.Statement of the ProblemForeign Direct Investment (FDI) fell by 48.2% during July-March 2011-12 and stood at $599 million as against $1157 million during the comparable period of last years. The portfolio investment decreases by 148.5% as it turned to outflow of $83 million against inflow of $305 million in the corresponding period of last year because of the recent economic conditions of Pakistan.Purpose of the studyThe purpose of the study is to analyze the current economic conditions of Pakistan and their impact on Pakistan. In this study we will deeply analyze the three major economic sectors of Pakistan’s economy and their positive and negative impact on FDI. In this study we will also follow the most recent political conditions of Pakistan and their impact on economy. Beside energy crises and security conditions in Pakistan are also the part of this study.HypothesisHo = the current economic conditions are not decreasing the FDI in PakistanHa = the current economic conditions are decreasing the FDI in PakistanLiterature Review“In its latest report on Pakistan’s economy, The World Bank has painted a dismal report in which it has reported a noticeable decline in per capita income (PCI), and increase in unemployment by volumes. Expressing its deep apprehensions over Pakistan’s economic progress, it has said that progress had slowed considerably, and Pakistan was lagging well behind even such SAARC counterparts as Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri-Lanka and India. The report cites political tensions, confrontations and natural calamities, chiefly floods, as the main reasons for this sad state of affairs. “Pakistan’s economy is estimated to grow by 3.7% against the target of 4.2% set for the year 2011-12 and actual growth of 3% in 2010-11. Agriculture sector is estimated to grow by 3.1% as against the target of 3.4%. The rain damaged agriculture sector badly in lower Sindh Industrial sector is also shown downfall due to the shortage of gas and electricity in the Pakistan. “The services sector grew by 4% which is below the targeted growth of 5% and actual growth of 4.5% last year.National Saving is estimated to fall from 13.2% of GDP to 10.8% in 2011-12 as against the target of 13.2%. Real private and public investment both fell by 13% and 8.4% respectively.MethodologyI shall use both qualitative and quantitative research to solve the problem. In this research I shall collect both the qualitative data and quantitative data with primary and secondary resources. In qualitative research I shall see the economic instability of the country, security problem of the country and their overall impact on country and FDI. In quantitative research I shall collect the data of agriculture, services and industrial sector data of last ten years and the FDI data of last ten years and then compare their impacts and the results.