Abstract
The global range and high fatality rate of the newest human coronavirus (HCoV) pandemic has made SARS-CoV-2 the focus of the scientific world. Next-generation sequencing of the viral genome and a phylogenetic analysis have shown the high homology of SARS-CoV-2 to other HCoVs that have led to local epidemics in the past. The experience acquired in SARS and MERS epidemics may prove useful in understanding the SARS-CoV-2 pathomechanism and lead to effective treatment and potential vaccine development. This study summarizes the immune response to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 and focuses on T cell response, humoral immunity, and complement system activation in different stages of HCoVs infections. The study also presents the quantity and frequency of T cell responses, particularly CD4+ and CD8+; the profile of cytokine production and secretion; and its relation to T cell type, disease severity, and utility in prognostics of the course of SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 outbreaks. The role of interferons in the therapy of these infections is also discussed. Moreover, the kinetics of specific antibody production, the correlation between humoral and cellular immune response and the immunogenicity of the structural HCoVs proteins and their utility in the development of a vaccine against SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 has been updated.
Highlights
Coronaviruses (CoVs) were discovered in the 1930s as zoonotic spherical pathogens causing mostly respiratory or enteric diseases [1,2]
This paper provides an analysis of the immunogenicity of SARS-CoV, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 infections and a review of the types of immune responses to SARS, MERS, and COVID-19
These changes were characteristic of severe progression of the disease, supporting the hypothesis that COVID-19 is driven by proinflammatory cytokines, which are responsible for histological changes and clinically full-blown cases of the disease
Summary
Coronaviruses (CoVs) were discovered in the 1930s as zoonotic spherical pathogens causing mostly respiratory or enteric diseases [1,2]. There are similarities between the genome sequences of SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, the transmission force and spectrum of diseases caused by the above HCoVs seem to be different. It has been documented that the structure of SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain is similar to that of SARS-CoV [34,35,36,37] Both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses generated against the structural proteins of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV have been reported, the immunological information about SARS-CoV-2 remains poorly described and incomplete. The similarities between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, manifested in high genome homology, mechanism of cell admission, and connection to specific human receptors, allow an easier understanding the pathomechanism of SARS-CoV-2 action and its influence on the immunological system of COVID-19 patients. This paper provides an analysis of the immunogenicity of SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 infections and a review of the types of immune responses to SARS, MERS, and COVID-19
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