Immigration Crisis in Texas: The Impact of the Exotic Axis Deer on the Texas Hill Country

Retirees in Profile: Evaluating Five Distinct Lifestyles in Retirement

Reviewed by: Violence in the Hill Country: The Texas Frontier in the Civil War Era by Nicholas Keefauver Roland Christopher Menking (bio) Violence in the Hill Country: The Texas Frontier in the Civil War Era. By Nicholas Keefauver Roland. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2021. Pp. 288. Cloth, $45.00.) For many Americans, Texans included, the Texas Hill Country remains a unique and little-known region. In Violence in the Hill Country, Nicholas Keefauver Roland delves into the violence that engulfed the Hill Country in the Civil War era and investigates possible causes for the spike in deaths during this period. His analysis covers the years roughly spanning 1850 to 1880 and addresses twelve Texas counties that experienced an increase in wartime violence. Roland argues that the uptick in violence during these years was a result of the struggle for power between Confederates and Unionists. He uses David Kilcullen’s model, originally created to explain urban insurgencies, to provide a theoretical framework in which to place the competing interests in the region. While the model provides a useful tool to help understand the increased violence, other factors beyond a high-level struggle for power came into play in a region like the Hill Country. Before the Civil War, the Hill Country existed on the western frontier of settled land in Texas. The prewar experience of limited governmental oversight and low taxation created among the settlers a unique mix of staunch independence and self-reliance in defending their homesteads from Native American raids. Their reaction to the Confederate government’s new imposition of taxes and draft of Hill Country residents may have contributed to the hostilities. The author weaves a detailed and well-researched narrative of the years before, during, and after the Civil War, providing the reader with a vivid image of Hill Country life during this time. The use of primary sources, including government records, memoirs, letters, and newspapers, provides a depth to the narrative. Roland, however, makes limited use of important secondary sources written over the past few decades that would have provided additional historical context. He does an excellent job of placing events within a larger historical narrative, one of the book’s primary historical contributions, but by neglecting some of these secondary sources, he misses important explorations of the timing of the violence. For example, works related to the Great Hanging at Gainesville, a mass killing of Unionists in North Texas, would have enriched Roland’s discussion of the loss of life in the Hill Country. Also, sources relating to the guerrilla and partisan violence in Missouri and Kentucky should have been included, particularly because Roland mentions these similar cases without accompanying citations. The author’s highly readable prose brings such events as the Nueces Massacre to life. The massacre is little known or discussed outside of the Hill Country, even in Texas. Roland’s book provides the first major effort to [End Page 571] place the massacre within the context of the larger historical narrative of the Civil War era, and also to offer an explanation as to why it, and general violence, gripped the region. This important contribution to the historiography begins to fill in a long-standing gap in Texas and Civil War history. Readers interested in the American Civil War, Texas history, or the Texas Hill Country will all benefit from this book. Roland makes a diligent effort to create a framework for using the Hill Country in the Civil War era as a template to analyze similar regions that experienced waves of violence and partisan warfare. The author discusses several factors that contributed to the rise in wartime violence: poverty, which resulted from a lack of marketable resources and a wartime drought; the withdrawal of the U.S. Army and the income it provided; geographic isolation; and cultural aspects, such as a sense of racial superiority, hypermasculinity, and a tradition of vigilantism. Considering that vigilantism, race-based lynching, and more conventional violent reprisals persisted into the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Roland’s narrative begins to offer origins for the violence that continued in the region. Overall, Roland has created a well-written work that greatly enhances the historiography related to...

254 Western American Literature This Favored Place: The Texas Hill Country. By Elroy Bode. Photography by Frederick C. Baldwin and Wendy V. Watriss. (Bryan, Texas: Shearer Publishing, 1983. 136 pages, $13.95.) In such books as Texas Sketchbook and Sketchbook II, Elroy Bode estab­ lished his reputation as an unusually perceptive recorder of everyday experi­ ence, especially of his native Hill Country in Central Texas. In addition to this skill, Bode writes prose that is as evocative and crystalline as the finest poetry. In this latest collection of Bode’s work, Lou Rodenberger, longtime acquaintance of Bode, has selected and edited a cohesive body of the finest of Bode’s sketches. These are actually vignettes, little snatches of Bode’s life shaped by a masterful hand. Perhaps too much nostalgia is unhealthy, but for those of us who feel the pressure of the modern world a little too heavily, remembering the good old places and times offers relief. It is like quenching a burning thirst by kneeling down to take a long draught from a spring bubbling out of the sheer face of a limestone cliff. Bode isone of the few writers able to offer that refreshing and satisfying drink vicariously and, in addition, to universalize the experience of the past for all of us, regardless of where we spent that time. In these sketches, Bode takes the reader on a tour of his personal Hill Country — the sights, places, sounds, smells, activities, and people that make up the land he remembers. He recalls fishing on the Pedernales River in LBJ country and party nights at Criders, an oak-shaded cement slab, some benches, and lights that on a summer Saturday night in the Hill Country can turn into a honky-tonkofimposing proportions. His parents are included in the volume, along with people that he saw occasionally or remembers from a single encounter. Especially prominent are memories of his grandparents and the ranch onwhich Bode had many significant experiences growing up. He recalls the good times, and then later, the time his grandfather died and his grand­ mother moved to Kerrville to take up disconsolate town life, a stark contrast to the calm, relaxed rural experience that she had known and which had so inspired the young Bode. Here are front porch and yard visitations concen­ trating on predominantly rural life of an earlier day. The sketches form a hauntingly beautiful montage, the kind of experiences to be savored for the richness of association that arises from them. In a day when truly well-written English is rare, here is the work of one of the few writers who deserves attention for his skill in verbally evoking a time and a place. This is an excellent — and overdue — work, finely done by Shearer Press, a house that is revitalizing the publishing of quality books in Texas. LAWRENCE CLAYTON Hardin-Simmons University ...

Reviewed by: A Naturalist’s Guide to the Texas Hill Country by Mark Gustafson Thomas R. Simpson A Naturalist’s Guide to the Texas Hill Country. By Mark Gustafson. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2015. vii + 339 pp. Illustrations, references, index. $24.95 cloth. Author Mark Gustafson remarks in the introduction of his book that the Hill Country is perhaps the best-loved region of Texas. It is a crossroads region of cultures, plants, and animals from the bordering ecoregions of South Texas brush country, western arid lands of the Trans-Pecos, and northern prairies of the Rolling Plains. The region’s distinctiveness derives from its unique geology and topography, producing picturesque hills, canyons, and a multitude of perennial spring-fed rivers. Because of these influences, the flora and fauna of the Texas Hill Country are rich and diverse. With 430 species of birds alone, choosing representatives from any of the wildlife categories (woody plants, flowers, grasses, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates) presents a daunting task to any author preparing a guide for this region. In this effort, I find the author has included species that characterize and reflect the diversity of the region, are taxonomically varied, and range from the abundant and obvious to the obscure. Importantly, species of conservation concern, such as the black-capped vireo, Cagle’s map turtle, and Texas horned lizard, are among the listed species. Also, I find the inclusion of nonindigenous (exotic and, in some cases, invasive) species to be refreshing. Many guides to wildlife and plants ignore these ecologically important species. In addition to the wild flora and fauna, this guide contains a wealth of information on geology, topography, and cultural aspects of the Hill Country. With simple and straightforward discussions on limestone karst, granite of the Llano Uplift, streams, rivers, and aquifers, Gustafson conveys the region’s complex geological history. Added to this is the human cultural element, which has impacted plants and animals beginning with Paleoindians and historical native tribes such as the Apaches and Comanches, and stretching to European settlers and their modern descendants. The inclusion of brief, basic descriptions of selected state parks and recreational areas is a nice touch that helps to familiarize readers with Hill Country nature. Along with the many positives of this book, there are missed opportunities. Some of the species’ narratives are mystifyingly short. The addition of a sentence or two could have provided interesting natural history or conservation information. For example, facts about ecological problems created by nonindigenous and invasive species are generally lacking. However, additional information can be found through listed references to detailed species accounts. This nicely produced volume with a wealth of vivid photographs is not a traditional “field guide” for identification of wild plant and animal species through distinguishing characteristics and distributions. This guide will find its best use by accompanying the target audience of amateur naturalists exploring the Texas Hill Country and offering glimpses and descriptions of the region’s exceptional beauty. Thomas R. Simpson Department of Biology Texas State University, San Marcos Copyright © 2016 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

The Texas Hill Country is threatened by devastating long-duration droughts and short-duration floods, either of which can occur at any time. In Central Texas, El Niño and La Niña conditions each occur about one-quarter of the time. Long-term precipitation data for the area reveal that greater rainfall generally occurs during La Niña periods for summer months but greater rainfall typically occurs during El Niño periods for other months. Annual streamflow peaks cannot be attributed to El Niño or La Niña conditions, but typically occur during the hurricane season (June through November), especially for the largest peaks. Additionally, El Niño period runoff volumes exceed those during La Niña at all runoff-gaged streams in the area. For the streams in the northern part of the Hill Country, El Niño period runoff only slightly exceeds La Niña period runoff. However, for the streams in the southern part of the area, El Niño period runoff greatly exceeds La Niña period runoff. Citation: RM Slade, TE Chow. 2011. Statistical relations of precipitation and stream runoff for El Niño and La Niña periods, Texas Hill Country. Texas Water Journal. 2(1):1-22. Available from: https://doi.org/10.21423/twj.v2i1.3665.

Early in the 20th century economies stagnated and populations dwindled in the Texas Hill Country. Over the past three decades, however, several Hill Country counties have experienced a remarkable reversal of demographic fortune, culminating in a notable influx of older migrants with wealth. This study documents this flow with census data for 34 counties in Texas Hill Country between 1965 and 1990. Correlation statistics show a close relationship between elderly inmigrant flows and economic resurgence in several counties. In particular, elderly in-migration rates were closely tied to increases in county income, as well as growth in the service, retail, and construction sectors.

In the nineteenth century, Texas’s advancing western frontier was the site of one of America’s longest conflicts between white settlers and native peoples. The Texas Hill Country functioned as a kind of borderland within the larger borderland of Texas itself, a vast and fluid area where, during the Civil War, the slaveholding South and the nominally free-labor West collided. As in many borderlands, Nicholas Roland argues, the Hill Country was marked by violence, as one set of peoples, states, and systems eventually displaced others. In this painstakingly researched book, Roland analyzes patterns of violence in the Texas Hill Country to examine the cultural and political priorities of white settlers and their interaction with the century-defining process of national integration and state-building in the Civil War era. He traces the role of violence in the region from the eve of the Civil War, through secession and the Indian wars, and into Reconstruction. Revealing a bitter history of warfare, criminality, divided communities, political violence, vengeance killings, and economic struggle, Roland positions the Texas Hill Country as emblematic of the Southwest of its time.

The effects of five rations and four dates postcollection on fecal pH and defecation rates were determined for eight ruminant species in penned enclosures. Only axis deer (Axis axis) had a uniquely different fecal pH (P < 0.05). Species differences and date of analysis resulted in 37.9 and 25.0%, respectively, of the observed variation in fecal pH, whereas ration accounted for only 15.4%. Fecal pH decreased as time postcollection increased. Fecal pH was of limited utility in identifying specific origin of fecal pellets. Whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) had a higher defecation rate (X = 19.6 groups/day, SE = 2.3) (P < 0.05) than did any other species. Our data suggest that previous estimates of defecation rate for white-tailed deer may be low. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 48(3):807-813 The fecal pellet group count is a common method of assessing population trends and habitat use for wild ruminants. However, problems arise when a range is occupied simultaneously by two or more ruminants because of the inability to distinguish between fecal pellets of different species. Several techniques for testing specific origin of fecal pellets have been proposed, including size/shape comparisons (Sanders 1963, Ogren 1964), fecal pH (Howard 1967, Nagy and Gilbert 1968, Howard and DeLorenzo 1974, Krausman et al. 1974, Hansen 1978, Beasom et al. 1982), scale patterns of ingested hairs (Beasom et al. 1981), and electrophoresis (Scribner et al. 1984). Differentiation by fecal pH has been the most popular approach to date, but consistency of results has been sporadic (see Beasom et al. 1982). Indeed, the inability to separate pH variation because of diet similarities from those due to inherent physiological differences has confounded most attempts (Peek and Keay 1979, MacCracken 1980, Beasom et al. 1982). MacCracken (1980) and Beasom et al. (1982) concluded that fecal pH was primarily a function of diet. Thus, if the species of interest exhibit appreciable dietary overlap, fecal pH probably will not be an accurate method of species identification (Hansen 1978, MacCracken 1980, Beasom et al. 1982). The inability to identify the specific origin of fecal pellets is especially troublesome on the Edwards Plateau of Texas, where rangelands commonly are grazed by white-tailed deer, sheep, goats, and several species of exotic ungulates. While documenting habitat use by white-tailed deer following brush removal (Rollins 1983), we encountered as many as eight sympatric ruminant species. In addition to sheep, goats, and white-tailed deer, exotic axis, fallow (Cervus dama) and sika deer (C. nippon), aoudads (Ammotragus lervia), and blackbuck antelope (Antelope cervicapra) were present. Defecation rates are another aspect of pellet group methodology that have been contested in recent years. Accurate estimates of defecation rates are necessary for 'Manuscript T-9-336, Coll. of Agric. Sci., Texas Tech Univ. 2 Present address: Department of Agronomy, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078. 3Present address: Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 778432475. J. Wildl. Manage. 48(3):1984 807 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.124 on Wed, 22 Jun 2016 06:00:46 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 808 FECAL PH AND DEFECATION RATES * Rollins et al. computing deer-days use or other population indices. Early reports suggested that the defecation rates of white-tailed and mule deer (0. hemionus) were about 13 times/day (McCain 1948, Eberhardt and Van Etten 1956). Smith (1964) suggested a slightly higher rate (13-14 times/day), whereas Rogers et al. (1958) reported a mean rate of 15 times/day. Collins and Urness (1981) reported a rate of 21-23 times/day for mule deer. Factors that may affect defecation rate were summarized by Neff (1968) and include forage intake (Rogers et al. 1958), forage moisture content (Longhurst 1954), abrupt changes in diet and age of animal (Smith 1964), and, possibly, stress (Neff 1964). Collins and Urness (1981) and Irby (1981) found that animal activity stimulated defecation. Few reports are available on the defecation rates for ruminants other than white-tailed or mule deer. Ogren (1964) reported a defecation rate of 12.7 times/ day for aoudads. Bailey and Putman (1981) reported that fallow deer defecated about 10 times/day, whereas Dinerstein and Dublin (1982) found a much higher defecation rate in captive axis deer (9 = 28 times/day). Longhurst (1954) found that defecation rate in sheep varied from 13-16 times/day depending on forage moisture content. We are not aware of any published estimates of defecation rates for Spanish or Angora goats, sika deer, or blackbuck antelope. We initiated a penned study in April 1982 to determine the effects of different diets on fecal pH values and defecation rates of eight ruminants. We wish to thank C. S. Schreiner, IV, for use of animals and facilities, D. Frantzen for providing assistance during the feeding trial, and D. B. Wester for assistance with statistical analyses. R. L. Preston, R. Pritchard, and R. J. Warren reviewed the manuscript.

The importance of hydraulic roughness estimates in modeling river flow cannot be overstated. Spatial and temporal variation of flow resistance can have a dramatic effect on the prediction of floodplain width, depth, and other hydraulic properties. The Texas Hill Country, a physiographic region of uplifted and differentially eroded limestone in south-central Texas, is the site of considerably heterogeneous fluvial forms and processes. Predictions of the spatial extent of floods in this area are difficult given this topographic and fluvial heterogeneity. In this report, we present a new method to extract spatial maps of hydraulic roughness using channel geometry and newly accessible USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) data. We use these data to construct maps of hydraulic roughness at different discharges and to test roughness prediction methods suggested by previous authors. Our method for extracting roughness values is general and should be applicable in most areas of the United States. The patterns of hydraulic resistance around the Texas Hill Country and through its eastern boundary, the Balcones Escarpment, are spatially diverse, ranging from n ≅ 0.016 to 0.213, and no simple spatial pattern of roughness exists. The most unexpected finding is the high values of Manning's roughness value (n) in most areas of the Hill Country, with n values often two or three times greater (n ≅ 0.04-0.06) than what would be expected using common n-estimation techniques (n ≅ 0.01-0.02). This simple finding is of practical importance because the too-low values of Manning's roughness are almost certainly translated into floodplain maps as too narrowly delineated floodplains.

We conducted a study to determine whether the nonnative axis deer (Axis axis) exhibited behaviors that could be negatively impacting ponds and pools in ephemeral channels. To assess behaviors, we collected game camera-trap images at two sites within the Texas Hill Country with naturally occurring standing water sources frequented by A. axis. We analyzed images of A. axis for behaviors including wallowing, territorial marking, and drinking. We also analyzed water samples for turbidity and Escherichia coli, in order to determine potential impacts of axis deer on water quality. During this study, we observed only drinking behaviors by A. axis. Water quality parameters did not significantly correlate with A. axis visitation rates. The observations suggest limited impact of A. axis on water sources, contributing to a greater understanding of A. axis behaviors and potential impacts within the Texas Hill Country.

Youth Forum: Immigration Crisis in Texas: The Impact of the Exotic Axis Deer on the Texas Hill Country: Youth Forum

This study examines the relationship between major source of income (i.e., adult children, financial independence and government welfare) and depression among elderly Hong Kong people. We also assessed the mediating and moderating effects of family social support and financial strain in the linkage between source of income and depression. The data came from a cross-sectional survey of a representative community sample of 1106 elderly respondents in Hong Kong. Using multiple regression models, data revealed that there was a differential impact of major sources of income on depression. Welfare participation and financial independence contributed to a higher level of depressive symptoms whereas people whose source of income was their adult children were more likely to report a lower level of depression than the others who were not. We also found that family social support was either a complete mediator or partial mediator in the relationship between different major sources of income and depression but it was not a significant moderator in the linkage between different major sources of income and depression. In contrast, financial strain was a significant moderator in the link between different major sources of income and depression. Specific and effective interventions must be developed for those who are financially independent or on welfare.

Watershed ordinances in Austin, Texas, USA, are intended to protect streams from stormwater degradation. Their adequacy is being questioned, however, where development is advancing into the Hill Country northwest and southwest of the city. Detailed investigation into hillslope runoff reveals that several important facts were overlooked in the ordinances, including locally high infiltration rates and drainage basins, which function as partial area systems. As a result, development planning is not taking advantage of the natural mitigation potential of the land. Roads cut across infiltration and moisture retention areas on side slopes, enlarging the partial area system feeding streams with stormflows. In addition, most residential planning is not responsive to the stepped microtopography of Hill Country drainage basins and the critical scale at which local runoff processes operate. Recommendations include adjusting the scale and configuration of development to conform with local runoff processes and features and taking advantage of the water-absorbing capacities of basin side slopes. The lesson for ordinance writers is that standard models of community stormwater ordinances are not appropriate for all terrains, especially complex ones like the Texas Hill Country.

Private lands play an important role in sustaining ecosystem functions of rural landscapes that also support quality tourism and recreation experiences. However, land fragmentation has increasingly threatened this role of private lands adjacent to expanding urban areas. This coincides with a growing trend among rural landowners to make their lands available for recreation and tourism-related uses. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of place meaning that connects rural landowners to their property and the surrounding Texas Hill Country on their engagement in tourism/recreation businesses and sustainable land management. Data were collected from a random sample of landowners in the Hill Country. Study findings show that economic disadvantages and commitment to place meanings of property and the Hill Country may have motivated tourism/recreation property owners’ decision to participate in the tourism/recreation businesses. Commitment to meanings of both places also plays a significant role in tourism/recreation property owners’ investment in sustainable land management. Suggestions for natural resource managers and rural tourism advocates to encourage rural tourism/recreation property owners’ involvement in sustainable land management are discussed.

Banana is a tropical crop grown in most developing countries, where it is commercialized by smallholder farmers. Banana is a major source of income, improved food security and possess great potential for value addition and export. Kenya is the largest producer of banana in East Africa, where it is a major source of food and income for smallholders. However, despite all these benefits, little is reported about its value chain factors and marketing channels in Kenya. Apparently, there are many restricting constraints in terms of banana supply and marketing management. Therefore, this study mapped socio-economic factors in the banana value chain and identified marketing channels in one banana-rich region, comprising Meru, Embu, and Tharaka-Nithi in Kenya. The study employed a cross-sectional survey design and multi-stage sampling of 384 respondents, comprising farmers, traders, and middlemen. A structured questionnaire was administered to respondents to collect primary data, which was subjected to descriptive and econometric analyses. The study found that majority of the farmers were small-scale, who used family labour (60%) and had limited access to credit and extension services. Middlemen were the dominant actors in marketing channels, compared to direct marketing. Farming experience and land allocated to banana were significant predictors with P=.030 and .040, respectively in Tharaka-Nithi, and P=.030 and .014, respectively in Embu. In Meru, land allocated to banana, type of labour, farming experience and education level were significant predictors with P=.012, .009, .059 and .080, respectively. Most farmers did not have a specific buyer of their bananas and hence were prone to exploitation by middlemen. Also few farmers got information on marketing channels. These findings provide insights into challenges faced by small-scale banana farmers in the region and recommends enactment of policies that support farmer access to credit, extension services, and direct marketing channels. Sustained sensitization of farmers on value chain requirements should instill the right marketing channel to adopt and consistently use.