Imagining Others' Minds: The Positive Relation Between Children's Role Play and Anthropomorphism.

Children's role play activities are included in symptom checklists of dissociative disorders, yet little is known about the potential relation between individual differences in role play and dissociative behaviors in normative development. This issue was examined in a study of 147 children aged 3 and 4 from a nonclinical population. Parents completed the Child Dissociative Checklist (CDC; F. W. Putnam, K. Helmers, & P. K. Trickett, 1993) and a questionnaire about their child's role play, fears, behavior problems, and dreams. Children were also interviewed about these same items. Dissociation was significantly related to parent report of fears, problem behaviors, and nightmares. These results are consistent with the view that CDC scores reflect some degree of difficulty in children's lives. Children who engaged in role play, particularly children with imaginary companions, scored higher on the CDC than other children. However, role play was not related to the measures of fears or problem behaviors. The results suggest that a distinction between pathological and nonpathological dissociation is warranted, with role play activities being more closely linked to the latter. Measurement of dissociation in preschoolers is discussed.

Aims:Imaginary companions (ICs) are a common feature of childhood and parents often witness young children’s play with their imaginary friends. This study investigated parent perceptions of ICs and explored associations between reported characteristics of the children and ICs and purposes served.Method:A self-selecting sample of 264 parents of children who had current or previous ICs completed questionnaires.Findings:Sixty per cent of the children had more than one IC. ICs mostly took human form (67 per cent) with 19 per cent taking animal form. Animal ICs were perceived as more important to the child. ICs served five distinct purposes: problem-solving and management of emotion, exploration of ideals, companion for joint fantasy play, companion to overcome loneliness and to allow children to explore behaviour and roles. Parents saw the main purposes of the ICs to be to support fantasy play and a companion to play and have fun with. They also frequently gave examples of how ICs enabled children to process and deal with life events. The majority of parents (88 per cent) did not think there were disadvantages in their child having an imaginary companion.Limitations:The sample is likely to be skewed in terms of age and social status and thus not representative of the overall British population. Information is given on the demographic that are likely to have engaged with the research.Conclusion:The quantitative and qualitative data from parents provide insights and contribute to the understanding of the varied purposes served by children’s ICs.

This investigation focused on the nature of imaginary companions (ICs) in 43 ethnically diverse, young school-age children (kindergarten, first, and second grade). We tested the hypotheses that our diverse sample would be able to describe their ICs in detail that is similar to rich descriptions of ICs found in samples of preschool-age, Caucasian children. Although we did not expect grade differences, we expected gender differences and explored differences by ethnicity. We also hypothesized that children with ICs would report greater tendencies to engage in overall fantasy play and that they would rate the importance of companionship with a real friend stronger than did children without an IC. The results supported the hypotheses that children in our sample would have ICs and be able to describe them in rich detail. The analyses revealed no grade or gender differences in having a companion, but did suggest that there may be subtle differences in the ICs of different ethnic groups that require further exploration. Finally, children with an IC did appear to have a greater fantasy orientation than children without an IC which suggests that the presence of ICs are an important part of children's lives from a wide range of backgrounds.

Parents are often solicited as reporters on their children's imaginary companions (ICs), but the correspondence between their reports and children's descriptions of pretend friends has received little attention. Sixty 4‐year‐old children and their parents provided descriptions of the children's interest in fantasy play, and 40 of these pairs also reported on children's ICs (20 on invisible friends and 20 on personified objects such as dolls). Results indicated that reports from parents of children with ICs matched their children's reports for involvement in fantasy play better than those of parents of children without ICs. For both IC groups, parents' reports concurred with children's for IC form, sex and physical description, but overall, parent–child agreement was higher for invisible friends than for personified objects. Results imply that parents may be better reporters of normative developmental processes that are slightly atypical than those that are common to most children. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The creation and cultivation of an imaginary companion is considered to be a healthy form of pretend play in early childhood, but there tends to be a less positive view of older children who have them. To test the extent that having an imaginary companion in middle school is associated with positive or negative outcomes, an ethnically diverse sample of 152 middle school children at high risk for developing problem behaviors were interviewed about imaginary companions, coping styles, and problem behaviors. Although having a current imaginary companion (n = 13) was associated with using more positive coping strategies, peer nomination data indicated that these children had low social preference with peers. In addition, our data indicated that these children were perceived by their parents as having more problem behaviors compared with young adolescents who never had imaginary companions (n = 108) or children who had imaginary companions in the past (n = 31). However, a longitudinal follow-up at the end of high school indicated that the children who had imaginary companions in middle school showed greater positive adjustment on a multiple-indicator adjustment construct.

In line with theories that children's pretend play reflects and extends their narrative skills, children with imaginary companions were predicted to have better narrative skills than children without imaginary companions. Forty-eight 5(1/2)-year-old children and their mothers participated in interviews about children's imaginary companions. Children also completed language and narrative assessments. Twenty-three of the children (48%) were deemed to have engaged in imaginary companion play. Children with and without imaginary companions were similar in their vocabulary skills, but children with imaginary companions told richer narratives about a storybook and a personal experience compared to children without imaginary companions. This finding supports theories of a connection between pretend play and storytelling by the end of early childhood.

Series Editor's Preface. Acknowledgments. Chapter 1 An Introduction to Play. Why Play? Examples of What Is and What Is Not Play. Characteristics of Playful Behavior. Types of Play. Things That Are Probably Not Play: Exploration, Stereotypic Behavior, Work, Rule-Governed Games. Methods of Studying Play. Plan of the Book. Chapter 2 A Brief History of the Study of Play and of Play Theories. Early European Educators and the Role of Play. Evolutionary Theory and Play: Darwin, Spencer, and Groos. Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Play. The Play Ethos. Anthropological Perspectives on Play. Psychological Perspectives: Vygotsky and Piaget. Developmental Sequences in Play: Piaget, Smilansky, Rubin. More Recent Play Theorists. Chapter 3 Animal Play: Definitions and Descriptions. Possible Play in Birds, Lower Vertebrates, and Invertebrates. Play in Mammals. Some Examples of Mammalian Play. Do All Mammals Play? Play in Monkeys and Apes. Chapter 4 Animal Play: Theoretical Perspectives on Function. Theories and Evidence Concerning the Evolution and Adaptive Value of Animal Play. Examining Possible Benefits of Play. General Views on the Benefits of Play. The Possible Relevance for Human Play of Studying Animal Play. Chapter 5 Play in Different Cultures. (author: Yumi Gosso) Parakana Children. Factors Contributing to Cultural Similarities and Differences. Similarities and Differences across Cultures. Chapter 6 Physical Activity Play: Exercise Play and Rough-and-Tumble. Stages in Physical Activity Play. Rough-and-Tumble Play. Sex Differences in Physical Activity Play. Functions of Physical Activity Play. Chapter 7 Object Play. Sensorimotor or Functional Play. Beyond the Sensorimotor Period. Functions of Object Play. Experiments with Object Play and Creative Problem-Solving. Chapter 8 Pretend Play: Description. Definitions of Pretend or Fantasy Play. The Development of Pretend Play in Children. Solitary and Social Pretend Play. Sociodramatic Play. Imaginary Companions. Distinguishing Fantasy and Reality. Gender Differences. Pretend Play and Friendship. Other Factors Affecting Pretend Play. A Universal Human Feature? Children with Autism. Pretend Play as a Lifespan Activity? Chapter 9 Pretend Play: Theories and Functions. Arguments for Benefits of Pretend or Fantasy Play. Theories Concerning the Function of Pretend Play. Models of the Role of Pretend Play in Development. Evidence for the Functions of Pretend Play. Experimental Studies. Chapter 10 Some Practical Issues Concerning Play. The Role of Parents in Encouraging and Structuring Children's Play. The Role of Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum: Play Training. Attitudes to War Play. The Arguments For (and Against) Recess Breaks. The Role of Play in Helping Children under Stress, or with Illness or Disability. Chapter 11 Concluding Comments: Play and the Middle Way. Play: Ignored or Idealized? References. Author Index. Subject Index.

We investigated the prevalence of Chinese children's imaginary companions (ICs) and the internal variables of IC types (personified object or invisible friend) and child–IC relationship qualities (egalitarian or hierarchical child–IC relationship). Participants were 266 children aged 4 to 6 years. Only in the 5-year-old group was the proportion of children with ICs significantly higher among girls than among boys, implying that the relationship between gender and IC was not consistent across age groups. Children from families in the highest annual income group engaged in more IC play than did children from families in the lowest annual income group, indicating a relationship between family socioeconomic environment and children's imaginary play. IC types were not associated with child–IC relationship qualities in any of the age groups, implying that these qualities may represent different dimensions of IC play as early as 4 years old.

Childhood fantasy play and creation of imaginary companions are thought to confer socio‐emotional benefits in children, but little is known about how they relate to socio‐emotional competence in adulthood. A total of 341 adults (81 males) aged 18 and above (M = 31.47, SD = 12.62) completed an online survey examining their fantasy play as a child, their childhood imaginary companion status, and their adult socio‐emotional competence. Adults who reported higher levels of childhood fantasy play were found to be significantly more prosocial, empathetic, and emotionally intelligent than their counterparts after controlling for demographic factors. Recall of a childhood imaginary companion, however, was significantly related only to higher scores for perspective‐taking and did not explain unique variance in any adult competence measure. Findings suggest that engagement in fantasy play during childhood may be a precursor to later socio‐emotional competence, while benefits previously associated with imaginary companions specifically may not extend into adulthood.

Having an imaginary companion (IC) is an example of children's pretend play. However, most research regarding children's ICs is from Western cultures. In this study, the prevalence of ICs was assessed among Japanese children (2- to 9-year-old children, N = 800). The developmental (age), biological (sex), and environmental (birth order) effects on Japanese children's ICs were also assessed. Moreover, whether IC status can be an indicator of fantasy orientation in Japanese children was examined. The results revealed that the prevalence of the invisible friend was relatively rare, but the personified object was prevalent in Japanese children. Age and sex, but not birth order, significantly affected the prevalence of ICs in Japan. Moreover, IC status significantly indicated children's fantasy orientation. The results suggest that the characteristics of Japanese children's ICs are partly different from those in Western children. Social-cultural contexts can affect this difference.

Background. Many authors note the similarity of children's role play and the actor’s play, however, this similarity is usually limited to external features: the presence of a plot, roles, subject attributes, etc. Upon closer examination, it turns out that these are two completely different activities, significantly different from each other. However, they have one deep common property: they are able to evoke and change feelings. Despite the fact that L. Vygotsky attached great importance to the affect not only in connection with art, but also in connection with play, these issues are not sufficiently investigated in Russian psychology. Objective. To consider the transformation of feeling in a child's play and compare it with the play of an actor. Results. The basis for children's play is emotive, understood as the connection of an event with emotional reactions. The similarity of the current situation with the emotive leads to the appearance and embodiment of the play image. The play image contributes to the transformation of experience: inhibition of spontaneous emotions, splitting of emotional reactions and the appearance of a specific state of playfulness, the emergence of new feelings and joint experiences with other participants of the play. Similar processes occur in society due to stage art. L. Vygotsky believed that the actor’s play has special functions in society: it appears as a response to the mood in society, to the events that people are concerned about. Actor’s play causes viewers to have general emotional reactions, to change and enrich their experience. Conclusion. Actor’s and children’s play are similar not only in common terminology and imaginary situation of action. They have a deep similarity: both these types of play are connected with work on experience, with its transformation. These are extremely important areas of human culture, since the culture of dealing with feelings has a special meaning for a person as a social being. Play is an instrument of emotional regulation for a child, just as art is a social technique of feelings for humanity.

We compared the incidence of imaginary companions and impersonated characters in 152 three- and four-year-old children (75 males and 77 females). Children and their parents were interviewed about role play in two sessions. Although there were no sex differences in verbal ability or fantasy predisposition, there was a significant difference in the form of children’s imaginary characters: girls were more likely to create imaginary companions, whereas boys were more likely than girls to actively impersonate their characters. There were no significant sex differences in the competence ratings of imaginary companions or impersonated characters. These results suggest that it is important to examine the form and function of children’s pretense to understand sex differences in fantasy play. Sex differences in the play of young children are apparent by 13 months of age (Goldberg & Lewis, 1969). Around the world there are fairly consistent differences in the proportion of rough-and-tumble activity, aggression, and use of large spaces, all higher in boys, as well as cooperation, dyadic versus group play, and preference for finemotor toys, all higher in girls (e.g., Borman, Laine, & Lowe, 1993; Cunningham, Jones, & Taylor, 1994; DiPietro, 1981; Lever, 1978; Mac

Pretend play is one of the earliest forms of children’s imagination. While social pretend play (role play) may facilitate the development of theory of mind – including false belief understanding – theoretically, the reverse may be true; theory of mind may facilitate the development of role play. To clarify this relationship, the present longitudinal study examined whether toddler’s implicit understanding of false beliefs predicted their role play during preschool years. We examined 18-month-old toddlers’ looking time in an implicit false-belief task (Time 1). When the children were 4/5 years old (Time 2), children’s parents answered a questionnaire on their child’s engagement in role play, such as playing with an imaginary companion and impersonating an imagined character. Toddlers’ looking time in the false-belief task at Time 1 predicted impersonation scores at Time 2. The results suggest that early theory of mind skills can facilitate children’s role play.

Drama as a learning medium, has its roots in dramatic play. Very young babies naturally imitate and mimic what they see and hear. Once they are able to move around, toddlers start trying out things that they have seen adults doing. For example, they might pretend to cook, make imaginary cups of tea, drive imaginary cars and motorbikes, pretend they are talking to someone on a mobile phone, etc. They sometimes use functional toys in their dramatic play, e.g. a toy teapot ‘as if’ it were a real teapot, but they also use ambiguous objects imaginatively, ‘as if’ they are something else. For example, a cardboard box might become a car, a stick might become a knife. They often bring in dolls, furry toys, their pets or imaginary friends into their role- play scenarios, as the other characters. Children will also role-play together and sometimes with adults. The role play is not real but the skills being developed are real, e.g. co-operation, collaboration, turn taking, negotiation, listening, fine motor skills, etc. Whilst imitating, mimicking and improvising, they are using real language purposefully, within a range of familiar or newly imagined contexts. They feel confident and successful in their make believe worlds and are often rehearsing adult situations and activities. Young children in schools get time in role play areas (both indoors and outdoors). They sometimes have teachers and/or other adults interacting with them as they role play but they also should have opportunity for their own, free role play without adults involved. A teacher (or other adult), role-playing with children can help focus and maintain children’s attention, model various types of talk, give status to their make believe and introduce problems to be resolved together. Teachers in role can stimulate and challenge the children’s various types of thinking and inter-thinking, from within an engaging and compelling fiction

Illustrative case material is presented to demonstrate genetic linkages between the presence of imaginary companions or fantasy twins and extensive mirror play in childhood and early adolescence, and the appearance of mirror dreams and depersonalization in later adolescence and adulthood. The defensive splitting of the self-representations observable in these phenomena is viewed as a means of warding off castration anxiety and anxiety about object loss, anxieties which arise because of conflicts primarily centering on intense aggressive drive derivative wishes. Formulations about depersonalization are discussed.