Imagining a Modern Nineteenth-Century Priest: (Based on the Novel by A. Sturdza “Letters on the Offices of the Holy Order”)

REVIEWS 511 ~ xto spodivaitcja (K) ‘that put their trust [in him]’ (p. 178), spasennje (M) ~ spasennja (K) ‘salvation’ (p. 178), peščera (M) ~ pečera (K) ‘cave’ (p. 185), čystyj (M) ~ ščyryj (K) ‘righteous’ (p. 185), čudesa (M) ~ dyva (K) ‘wondrous works’ (p. 186); some long-naturalized (regional) Polonisms are also changed with ‘more’ vernacular forms of the type kotryj (M) ~ jakyj (K) ‘which’ (p. 180) and papir (M) ~ bomaha (K) ‘[the volume of the] book’ (p. 183); one can also add here a northern Ukrainian form typical of the previous literary tradition — pljundrovaty (M) next to modern pljundruvaty (K) ‘to plunder’ (p. 188). No doubt, the translation of Moračevs’kyj is a true trove of data reflecting the vagaries of the formation of new standard Ukrainian, including its high style. Yet this process would have appeared more nuanced had the authors of the introduction placed the creation of the Ukrainian Psalter in the wider context of similar translations made not only before Moračevs’kyj but also after him. In this regard, one should mention Pantelejmon Kuliš whose first paraphrases of Psalms 1 and 13 appeared in 1868, and Oleksandr Navroc’kyj and Volodymyr Aleksandrov who paraphrased the Psalter, under the influence of Kuliš, in the 1880s. Needless to say, publication of their works in the future would complement the edition of the pioneering translation made by Moračevs’kyj in 1865 and prepared for publication by Hnatenko 150 years later. Department of Modern Languages and Cultures Andrii Danylenko Pace University Offord, Derek; Ryazanova-Clarke, Lara; Rjéoutski, Vladislav and Argent, Gesine (eds). French and Russian in Imperial Russia. Volume 1: Language Use Among the Russian Elite. Russian Language and Society. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2015. xviii + 270 pp. Figures. Tables. Notes. Bibliographies. Index. £75.00. Offord, Derek; Ryazanova-Clarke, Lara; Rjéoutski, Vladislav and Argent, Gesine (eds). French and Russian in Imperial Russia. Volume 2: Language Attitudes and Identity. Russian Language and Society. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2015. xviii + 266 pp. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliographies. Index. £75.00. In January 1868, suffering from a periodic inflammation of the eye, P. A. Valuev, soon to be deposed as Alexander II’s Minister of Internal Affairs, was obliged to dictate his diary to his wife. Whereas he habitually recorded his thoughts in Russian, she preferred to write in French. Depressed by developments in St Petersburg and pessimistic about the state of Russian morals, the aloof Europeanized statesman was prompted to reflect, not for the first time, that it was ‘not natural’ that French should have become ‘more or less’ the SEER, 94, 3, july 2016 512 most influential language in Russian society: ‘Le chinois nous conviendrait beaucoup mieux.’ What motivated individual language choices in imperial Russia? And what can such choices tell us about the formation, consolidation and fragmentation of personal, social and national identities? Though isolated attempts have been made to answer such questions in the past, the subject has never been tackled in the concerted way represented by these two selfstanding but complementary volumes. Remarkably, the effort has finally been made neither in Russia nor in France, but in Britain, where a conference on ‘Enlightened Russian’, organized by Lara Ryazanova-Clarke at the University of Edinburgh in 2012, provided one of the sources for these books. The other was the Arts and Humanities Research Council project on ‘The History of the French Language in Russia’, led by Derek Offord at the University of Bristol with the collaboration of the remaining two editors. Though he generously acknowledges the extent to which this was a collective enterprise, Offord was clearly its guiding mind. Not the least of his contributions has been to translate more than a third of the twenty-four essays that comprise these two richly rewarding volumes. Written by an international cast of authors, ranging from doctoral candidates to senior scholars, the essays probe an impressively wide variety of published and unpublished materials. Beginning with a general consideration of the use of French and Russian in Catherine II’s Russia (Derek Offord, Gesine Argent and Vladislav Rjéoutski), the first volume goes on to discuss the empress’s letters to Grimm (Georges Dulac), language use by the Stroganovs...

This article examines the potential effects of artificial intelligence, which is characterised as the latest and perhaps the most radical technological transformation in human history, on religious life and belief systems in the context of the paradigm of social change from the perspective of the change of religious life. While rapidly developing artificial intelligence technologies make their impact felt in all areas of social life, they also raise fundamental questions about human existence, the search for meaning and ethical values. In this context, the main purpose of this article is to analyse the reflections of artificial intelligence on religious life from the perspective of social change and to address the possible effects of this new technology on belief systems, religious life, ethical values and social structures. The main justification of the article is that the transformation created by artificial intelligence is progressing rapidly and has begun to penetrate almost every aspect of social life. Artificial intelligence is no longer only a subject of the world of science and technology but is also becoming a focal point of social sciences. This article aims to meet the need to understand and make sense of the impact of artificial intelligence on religious life, based on the idea that this transformation should be addressed in terms of social change. In this article, based on the findings obtained by observation method, it is determined that the concept and applications of artificial intelligence trigger important questions about religious beliefs in the minds of individuals. In particular, the achievements of artificial intelligence that exceed human abilities and examples of its use in religious practices lead to thoughts that contradict existing religious beliefs in some individuals. This finding obtained through observation shows that the effects of artificial intelligence on religious life are not just a theoretical discussion, but a concrete analysis supported by observational data. The article also adopts a historical perspective to understand the potential impacts of artificial intelligence on religious life and social change. The transformative effects of previous technological revolutions (from the discovery of fire to the Internet) on social structures, belief systems, and lifestyles that have profoundly influenced human history are discussed. The new questions, searches and adaptation processes brought about by these revolutions are emphasised. Based on this historical context, the article argues that artificial intelligence has the potential to have a similar impact. In this context, the paper evaluates the potential effects of artificial intelligence on religious beliefs, ethical values and traditional authority that may emerge in areas such as advances in the field of medicine, potential virtual worship practices, possible robot imam figures, personalisation of religious education materials and gene editing. The article also draws attention to the potential risks of artificial intelligence. Issues such as the possibility of artificial intelligence getting out of human control and becoming a threat to humanity, the proliferation of autonomous weapons, genetic selection and manipulation are discussed, and it is emphasised that measures should be taken against these risks. The most important feature that distinguishes this article from other artificial intelligence studies is that it focuses on the effects of this technological revolution on religious life in the context of social change and addresses its possible effects on belief systems, religious practices, ethical values and social structures in a multi-faceted way. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the potential effects of the artificial intelligence revolution on religious life and social change and is believed to lay the groundwork for future research in this field. Again, this study presents the idea that a new dimension will emerge with artificial intelligence in the classical phases of social change as traditional, modern and postmodern, and perhaps this dimension may add a new phase to the phases of social change. This new phase can also be called “artificial intelligence society”.Methodologically, the theoretical analysis method based on sociology and sociology of religion literature was used in the study, and an interdisciplinary approach was adopted to evaluate the relationship between artificial intelligence and social change. In this respect, the study aims to make an original contribution that examines the effects of artificial intelligence on religious sociality and individual belief systems in the paradigm of social change.

The article examines concept of family in Russian society, changes in interpretation of family, connected with modern tendencies and processes in different sociocultural spheres. The article is structured and has accurate limits of introduction, main part and conclusion. The relevance of the research is caused by present-day crisis tendencies connected with suicide actions, atomization and hedonization of society, value depreciation of family. The object of the research is to analyze the conception of family and its transformation in condition of modern Russian society. The tasks are to determine the term <em>family, </em>to analyze<em> </em>approaches to understanding of the family and its genesis, detect some peculiarities of modern Russian society, research the transformation of interpretation of family in modern society; the matter of investigation is modern Russian society, the subject is the transformation of family structures; the following methods of research are used: historical and cultural approach, typological method, existential method, common logic procedures. The research contains author’s definition of the term <em>family, </em>historical and cultural analysis and typological explication of the approaches to interpretation of the problem, classification of family structures - which have been formed in Russian society- on the base of statistic and sociological data. <em> </em> Some interweaving of concept <em>family</em> with the most important existential values (love, freedom, responsibility) were investigated and some tendencies for further development of family relationship in Russian society were revealed, its problems and prospect were emphasized. The results of the investigation testify that modern types of matrimonial relationship differ in limitation of functionality, mutual responsibility, thereby it is possible to state that interpretation of family in modern Russian society has transformed.

The intellectual activities of creativity and critical thinking are essential in the complex problem-solving process of modern society. This article starts from the position that it is necessary to develop courses and assessment tools that is needed for simultaneously facilitating creativity and critical thinking skills at the same time in universities. The purpose of this paper is to provide a starting point for discussion on the development of creative competency courses and assessment tools required to link creativity and critical thinking skills. In Korea, there are many studies dealing with creativity and critical thinking separately, while in foreign countries, there is an active discussion taking place about the development of courses and assessment tools. To this end, based on the creative competency area set as a core competency in the liberal arts education of a university, the discussion was conducted by citing relevant domestic and foreign materials.&lt;br/&gt;First, in the process of arranging the connection between creativity and critical thinking, the necessity of linking these two skills to solve creative problems was confirmed. Next, the direction of the development of courses that can foster creativity and critical thinking abilities together was explored, focusing on lesson goals, contents, and methods. In order to simultaneously enhance creativity and critical thinking abilities among our students, it is necessary to design an activity-centered curriculum that combines both skills based on the existing creativity education and critical thinking education. Finally, the method of developing an assessment tool that can authentically measure the students’ creativity and critical thinking ability is described mainly using existing tools and in terms of employing technologies. Research on how to integrate previously developed tools for measuring creativity and measuring critical thinking skills should be continued. In particular, it is necessary to prepare a plan to solve technical problems in order to use technology in the course management and development of assessment tools.&lt;br/&gt;Classes for cultivating creativity and critical thinking abilities in our students can be more effective in liberal arts education for the simple reason that lessons within their majors emphasize the acquisition of specialized knowledge. Thus, there is a limit to creative competency education. Since modern and future societies require us to possess the ability to generate creative ideas in abundance in order to solve complex problems, as well as the ability to critically reflect and evaluate ideas and apply them to problem solving, it is urgent to develop courses and assessment tools that can align creativity with critical thinking. Designing effective classes through in-depth discussions on the development of courses and assessment tools remains as a theme for further research.

In recent years a flurry of works analysing liberalism and civil society in pre-revolutionary Russia have been published in English. Perhaps this trend can be attributed to a search on the part of ...

The aim of this study is to analyze the characteristics of contemporary Russian socio-philosophical discourse on the issue of human subjectivity. The methodological basis of the study is a socio-philosophical approach to the problem of subjectivity, which examines the individual in their relationships with society and interactions with various social groups. A critical conceptual analysis of existing interpretations of subjectivity in contemporary Russian discourse within the context of this socio-philosophical approach is also employed. Research results. Two approaches to the problem of subjectivity in contemporary Russian social philosophy have been identified. The first approach, building on the Marxist practical-activity concept of subjectivity, develops through significant transformations aimed at emphasizing the role of spiritual factors in subjectivity. As a result, subjectivity is interpreted as the free spiritual activity of the individual, relatively independent of society. The second approach is characterized by the fragmentation of individual subjectivity across specific disciplinary branches of socio-philosophical knowledge, resulting in the disintegration of the integral subjectivity of the individual into discrete, partial images of the economic, political, and legal person. As an example of a fragmented approach, the concept of economic man is examined. It is substantiated that the classical type of economic man is undergoing significant changes in modern society. In the contemporary neoliberal model, the subjectivity of economic man is viewed as market interaction, an act of purchase and sale, and a contract between parties. Research prospects. The need to develop a model of economic man relevant to Russian society is demonstrated, as the Western neoliberal model fails to take into account the sociocultural specifics of Russian society and its economic system. To overcome the fragmentation of research on individual subjectivity, the development of a holistic, integrated, interdisciplinary approach is proposed.

“Primordial and Gelatinous”? Civil Society in Imperial Russia Adele Lindenmeyr (bio) Joseph Bradley, Voluntary Associations in Tsarist Russia: Science, Patriotism, and Civil Society. xv + 366 pp., illus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. ISBN-13 978-0674032798. $55.00. Brian Horowitz, Jewish Philanthropy and Enlightenment in Late-Tsarist Russia. x + 342 pp. illus. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009. ISBN-13 978-0295988979, $75.00 (cloth); 978-0295988986, $35.00 (paper). E. Iu. Kazakova-Apkarimova, Formirovanie grazhdanskogo obshchestva: Gorodskie soslovnye korporatsii i obshchestvennye organizatsii na Srednem Urale (vtoraia polovina XIX–nachalo XX v.) (The Formation of Civil Society: Urban Estate Corporations and Public Organizations in the Central Urals Region in the Second Half of the 19th and the Beginning of the 20th Centuries). 290 pp., illus., tables. Ekaterinburg: RAN-Ural´skoe otdelenie, Institut istorii i arkheologii, 2008. ISBN 5769116705. Bianka Pietrov-Ennker (Pietrow-Ennker) and Galina Ul´ianova, eds., Grazhdanskaia identichnost´ i sfera grazhdanskoi deiatel´nosti v Rossiiskoi imperii: Vtoraia polovina XIX–nachalo XX veka (Civic Identity and the Sphere of Civic Activity in the Russian Empire in the Second Half of the 19th and the Beginning of the 20th Centuries). 302 pp. Moscow: Rosspen, 2007. ISBN-13 978-5824308624. Historians have been looking for a civil society in imperial Russia’s past for at least two decades. Though hardly as protracted or romantic as the quest [End Page 705] by European navigators for a Northwest Passage, the effort to find a viable public sphere in an autocratic state has inspired expeditions of discovery and revealed new features of the Russian historical landscape. Like these explorers, historians have generally agreed on what it is they seek: a public sphere distinct from the state, the economy, and private life, where Russians formed autonomous associations, social relationships, and communication networks in order to “represent interests, deliberate matters of public concern, and voice opinions,” in Joseph Bradley’s definition (7).1 But there is considerable disagreement among historians of civil society about what they have discovered, or whether the object they seek could even exist in autocratic Russia. In one camp are optimists such as Bradley, whose well-written, thoroughly researched new book argues that the evidence of a viable and growing civil society in imperial Russia is strong and irrefutable. On the other side are skeptics such as Lutz Häfner, whose essay in Grazhdanskaia identichnost´ i sfera grazhdanskoi deiatel´nosti v Rossiiskoi imperii criticizes fellow historians who “assume the existence [of civil society] a priori” and “evaluate every effort of society toward emancipation from state tutelage as a sign of civil society” (43–46). While the Ekaterinburg historian Elena Kazakova-Apkarimova finds a thriving civil society in the sparsely populated region of the central Urals, Brian Horowitz emphasizes impediments and disharmony in his history of the largest and most successful Jewish voluntary association in imperial Russia. The books reviewed here illustrate diverse approaches to the history of civil society while providing insights into four central issues: the role of the state; Russian exceptionalism; the social and economic prerequisites of civil society; and finally, the significance of civil society to the country’s historical development. Historians began their quest for a Russian public sphere distinct from illegal political parties and radical movements comparatively recently. As Bradley recounts in his introduction, most of us who studied the history of tsarist Russia in the 1970s learned the version that Antonio Gramsci neatly [End Page 706] summed up in an often quoted remark: “In Russia the state was everything, civil society was primordial and gelatinous.”2 Written in the 1920s not about tsarist-era civil society per se but about Lenin and Trotskii, Gramsci’s comment is an example of the kind of offhand comparisons once regularly made between Russian society and the seemingly normative social structures of the West. For many years the very fact of the 1917 revolution, with its attendant collapse of liberal alternatives and their middle-class base, seemed to present prima facie evidence for Gramsci’s characterization. The imperative to explain the revolution still dominated the study of imperial Russia and topped the agenda set for graduate students of our generation. The term “civil society” was little known and rarely...

Today, Russian society is faced with the need to rethink the reality in which it has found itself, including in connection with the reunification with new territories in the south of the country, the transformation of the entire system of national and international security, the construction of new meanings and interpretations of social and political processes. Changes in the sphere of socio-political, international and economic relations occur against the background of the processes of formation of the mobilisation type of state development, requiring the development of new value models and adaptation strategies for the behaviour of the population. In such conditions, historical justice, determining the logic of interpretation of events and processes occurring in Russian society, acts as a &amp;amp;quot;demarcation&amp;amp;quot; line in the mass consciousness and behaviour of the country's population. Determining the specifics of citizens' perception of historical justice can serve as the basis for coordinating public interests and creating an ideological coordinate system necessary for society in conditions of crisis and value contradictions. The purpose of the study is to consider historical justice as a factor in the civil integration of the Russian post-Soviet multicultural society in the context of socio-cultural challenges. The methodological basis of the study is built on the theories of natural and historical justice. The constructivist and riskological approaches were also used in this study. Within the framework of this publication, the following fundamental blocks are considered: historical justice as a direction of the state's social policy; ethnocultural interaction in the multicultural space of the Russian post-Soviet society; the role of historical justice in the integration of the Russian post-Soviet multicultural society in the context of socio-cultural challenges. As a result of the analysis of the presented blocks, the author comes to the conclusion about the need to implement a special state policy in modern Russian society aimed at constructing and strengthening the civil integration of the Russian multicultural society on the basis of integrating narratives. Such narratives should be based on the concept of continuity of national history, and they should unfold only on the principles of the culture of socio-political and scientific dialogue. The prospects of the research are connected with further study of existing factors of civil integration of Russian society, aimed at cultivating the values of humanistic worldview of Russian post-Soviet multicultural society in the context of new socio-cultural challenges.

Since groups constitute one of the essential components of the social structure, they form a fundamental subject of sociological inquiry. A subcategory of social groups, religious groups are examined from the perspective of the sociology of religion. In order to better understand the interactions of contemporary religious groups with social life, it is necessary to possess knowledge of their historically rooted origins. In addition, a researcher seeking to acquire knowledge about the religious history of a city must become familiar with the religious groups that have played significant roles within its religious and social structure. Gaining insight into both the historical origins of these groups and their functions within the city’s social fabric requires recourse to works on urban history, which contain a wealth of information on religious groups and are regarded as one of the primary sources for scholars. In his Amasya History, Hüseyin Hüsameddin Yaşar mentions the names of numerous religious groups that influenced the city’s social structure. These groups fulfilled significant functions in shaping the religious and social life of the city and played crucial roles in the formation of its present social fabric. The social and religious impact of these groups was not confined to the city itself; throughout history, they also influenced the religious landscape and social structures of the states to which they belonged. This study examines the diversity of religious groups in the city of Amasya from the perspective of Hüseyin Hüsameddin Yaşar, aiming to demonstrate the extent of their social influence and the ways in which they shaped the city’s socio-cultural and religious life. Following a general introduction concerning Hüseyin Hüsameddin Yaşar, an overview of the history of Amasya is provided. Subsequently, general information and definitions regarding religious groups are discussed. Subsequently, the findings concerning religious groups identified through the examination of the twelve-volume work are presented in a systematic manner. The interactions of the religious groups mentioned in this extensive work with the city’s social structure constitute a subject broad enough to warrant a separate study. Therefore, this article confines itself to providing information about the religious groups mentioned and the social structures that developed around them, limiting the scope of inquiry accordingly. This study primarily aims to identify the religious groups that shape the religious geography of the city.The subject of this study is significant not only in terms of examining the place of religious groups in the history of Amasya, but also in revealing what these groups represented within the intellectual world of Hüseyin Hüsameddin Yaşar. This research, which involves processes such as reviewing the author’s work, identifying the religious groups, and collecting information about them by consulting various sources, employs the document analysis method. Keywords: Sociology of Religion, Amasya, Hüseyin Hüsameddin Yaşar, Religious Groups, Historical Sociology.

The article considers the contradictions and conflicts that are characteristic of modern Russian society. The processes of social disintegration are analyzed and interpreted as a result of fundamental social and economic transformations. The problems of economic inequality are presented in the historical perspective in close connection with the previous stages of Russia's socioeconomic development. Significant polarization of the population is one of the most significant conflict factors in modern society, which leads to an increase in protest moods and may in the long term threaten social upheavals. Nevertheless, dissatisfaction with the socio-economic situation does not lead to ideas of the unification and consolidation of society, but find expression in social conflicts. The emergence and development of social conflicts is influenced by a number of factors: economic, ethnic, religious. One of the most important characteristics of society is its social structure. After the collapse of the USSR, the previous social structure was abolished, and a new social reality was formed in Russia. When considering the stratification structure of society, most attention is paid to the middle class, which is considered the backbone of a stable society. The middle class in Russia is in the stage of formation, it is hardly possible to speak of a complete analogy with the middle class of Western society. The share of middle class in society can be estimated in different ways depending on the methodological approaches used by researchers. An important consequence of the transformation of the social structure was the problem of marginalization, since the dismantling of the old social structure and the slow formation of the new one put the social status and place in the division of labor system of many individuals into question. The sharp impoverishment of representatives of prestigious professions led to a reassessment of their situation, especially for the younger generation. When analyzing the origins of social conflicts in modern Russian society, it is necessary to consider the issue of the attitude of the broad masses of the population to power and national elites. It should be noted that power in Russia historically takes shape around specific leaders and does not have an institutional character. The most significant factor shaping the attitude towards the authorities and the elite in general in Russian society are the economic results of the market reforms that have taken place. Only a small part of the population believes that they won as a result of the changes that have taken place, the natural consequence of which is the population's distrust of the authorities and, in general, political institutions.

The article considers the contradictions and conflicts that are characteristic of modern Russian society. The processes of social disintegration are analyzed and interpreted as a result of fundamental social and economic transformations. The problems of economic inequality are presented in the historical perspective in close connection with the previous stages of Russia's socioeconomic development. Significant polarization of the population is one of the most significant conflict factors in modern society, which leads to an increase in protest moods and may in the long term threaten social upheavals. Nevertheless, dissatisfaction with the socio-economic situation does not lead to ideas of the unification and consolidation of society, but find expression in social conflicts. The emergence and development of social conflicts is influenced by a number of factors: economic, ethnic, religious. One of the most important characteristics of society is its social structure. After the collapse of the USSR, the previous social structure was abolished, and a new social reality was formed in Russia. When considering the stratification structure of society, most attention is paid to the middle class, which is considered the backbone of a stable society. The middle class in Russia is in the stage of formation, it is hardly possible to speak of a complete analogy with the middle class of Western society. The share of middle class in society can be estimated in different ways depending on the methodological approaches used by researchers. An important consequence of the transformation of the social structure was the problem of marginalization, since the dismantling of the old social structure and the slow formation of the new one put the social status and place in the division of labor system of many individuals into question. The sharp impoverishment of representatives of prestigious professions led to a reassessment of their situation, especially for the younger generation. When analyzing the origins of social conflicts in modern Russian society, it is necessary to consider the issue of the attitude of the broad masses of the population to power and national elites. It should be noted that power in Russia historically takes shape around specific leaders and does not have an institutional character. The most significant factor shaping the attitude towards the authorities and the elite in general in Russian society are the economic results of the market reforms that have taken place. Only a small part of the population believes that they won as a result of the changes that have taken place, the natural consequence of which is the population's distrust of the authorities and, in general, political institutions.

Importance. The conservative trend in Russian social thought of the second half of the 19th century is one of the main goals of research in history science. The views analysis of one of the most prominent Russian conservatives, M.N. Katkov, on the new institutions of the Russian judicial system, the judicial corps after the reform of 1864 reflects the role of a well-known publicist and his influence on the masses and state judicial policy in the era of reforms and counter-reforms. The purpose of the study is to identify issues on a given topic in M.N. Katkov’s works, to describe the main conclusions of M.N. Katkov regarding the Russian judicial system in the 1860s and 1880s.Materials and Methods. The main sources of the study are numerous publications by M.N. Katkov, reflecting his views on the Russian judicial system in the 1860s and 1880s, and in particular on institutions new to the Russian state, law and society: world justice, cassation departments of the Governing Senate, jury trial. Additional sources of the study are the works of Russian scientists of the second half of the 19th century on a given topic. The methodological basis of the study is both general and particular methods of scientific cognition: the structural analysis method, which made it possible to assess changes in Russian society in the second half of the 19th century; the historical-comparative method, with which general and particular conclusions are drawn in the study by comparing different points of view on the Russian judicial system; the historical-systemic method that made it possible to comprehensively analyze the views of Russian researchers in the 1860s and 1880s on the post-reform Russian judicial system, in particular on world justice, cassation departments of the Governing Senate, jury trial; the logical method that allowed to identify the reasons for the change in M.N. Katkov’s views on the Russian judicial system in the 1860s and 1880s; other methods of scientific knowledge are also used.Results and Discussion. M.N. Katkov’s views on the Russian judicial system as a whole, and in particular on three institutions introduced as a result of the judicial reform of 1864: world justice, cassation departments of the Governing Senate, jury trial, are considered. The analysis of publications by a well-known journalist on problematic issues in the activities of these institutions is carried out. The influence of M.N. Katkov’s journalism on the state life of the Russian Empire in the 1860s–1880s is noted, the analysis of the reasons for the change in M.N. Katkov’s views on the Russian judicial system of in the post-reform period is given.Conclusion. The study of M.N. Katkov’s views allows us to present the complex process of struggle between the two main currents of public thought in Russia of the second half of the 19th century (liberals, conservatives) on issues of the Russian judicial system, as well as to note the most problematic and controversial moments in the provisions implementation of the Judicial Statutes of November 20, 1864, to understand the causes of disputes. The conclusion is made about the conflict of the main provisions of the Judicial Statutes of November 20, 1864 with the M.N. Katkov’s autocratic philosophy, which caused a change in the attitude of the famous publicist to the judicial reform carried out in the Russian Empire, and also determined M.N. Katkov’s apologetics in the era of the so-called counter-reforms.

Introduction Peter Piot (Executive Director of UNAIDS) challenged Bangkok International AIDS Conference attendees to think ahead 10 years or more so we will be prepared to meet the challenges that will face us [1]. Over this next decade, many formidable challenges are likely to stem from the interactions of social, ecological, political, and economic change; existing social structures; the changing HIV epidemic, and changes produced by emerging biomedicine and viral evolution. Although some challenges will be unpredictable, we should plan ahead for those we are able to anticipate. This paper identifies important social research issues regarding the changing global epidemic so funding agencies, journal editors, social science communities, individual researchers and students, non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations, and the general public can debate them and, hopefully, act on them. Social change is likely to create complex problems for our response to HIV. Weiss and McMichael [2] demonstrate the acceleration of socially-driven epidemic outbreaks of infectious diseases in recent years. As Rischard has argued [3,4], there is a high probability of massive political, ecological and social changes over the next few years. These threaten large-scale disruption of existing social and risk networks, sexual (and injection) mixing patterns, and sexual and injection behaviors that can impede or facilitate HIV transmission – and thus might generate HIV outbreaks parallel to those that followed the disruption of the USSR or that seem to be resulting from the increasing 'globalization' of India and China [5]. Global warming could produce large-scale population movements with similar results. Our reflections here on social change and other possible transformations have not produced a comprehensive or complete list of social research priorities. We have emphasized 'macro' and middle-level processes focusing on social, economic, political and cultural factors that affect HIV spread and/or that influence responses to the threat of HIV (rather than on small group or individual level processes that focus on the psychological and interpersonal) because we think these have received relatively less attention than is needed. We recognize that other researchers might produce different lists. We also recognize that it is important to foreground the probability that socio-epidemiologic contexts are likely to continue to have great cross-national variation and that 'big events' such as wars and transitions, perhaps in interaction with religious revival movements, can rapidly move countries into crisis conditions that pose the threat of explosive HIV outbreaks. Such changes can occur in countries that currently appear politically and economically stable. (It is useful to remember that few analysts in the early 1980s foresaw either the fall of the USSR or the collapse of apartheid in South Africa). The HIV/AIDS epidemic is itself a 'big event' in localities with high prevalence. While acknowledging the above, we propose six major emerging social research issues or themes. These themes, organized in terms of selected social and epidemiologic processes and situations (although noting that research on each of these topics will have at least some relevance everywhere), concern the following items. Wars, transitions, ecological or economic disruptions. Large-scale HIV epidemics, their related illness and death, and their attendant social instability and social disruption. Government policies that ignore or defy available evidence. Stable societies without generalized epidemics, which face distinctive challenges. Emerging biomedicine and its attendant opportunities and (perhaps unintended) social consequences. Possible failure of previously effective therapies due to viral evolution or disruptions in patterns of social organization. Each of these six themes provokes a number of research questions. To answer these questions, the full armamentarium of social science and social epidemiologic research methods will be needed, including theory development; hypothesis-testing and exploratory studies; ethnographic, quantitative, historical, and comparative designs; and intervention trials. In all of these approaches, involving relevant community members, decision-makers, and other actors as full collaborators or as sources of guidance, inspiration or critique, can be invaluable, including those based on participatory action research and on collaborative systematization of experiences [6–8]. Research has documented the effectiveness of community responses to HIV – often in advance of public health interventions [9]. Working with communities means that interventions are informed by community members and are thus more likely to be perceived as appropriate and taken up. However, throughout the epidemic, there has been a relative lack both of researchers interested in topics like those in these six themes and of funding to conduct such research. We close with thoughts about how to address these problems. Social processes and HIV/AIDS Why should social factors affect HIV/AIDS epidemics? The first reason is that HIV is transmitted through sexual and drug-injection networks, which are fundamentally social phenomena. Social norms about appropriate choice, numbers and timing of partners, and about behaviors with those partners, shape crucial network variables such as concurrent sexual and injection partnerships; partner turnover rates; mixing patterns; the size, centrality and microstructures of community network components; and the extent of quasi-anonymous risk nodes such as group sex parties, bath-houses, and shooting galleries [5,10–16]. Social norms, regulations, educational systems and law enforcement processes affect sexual and drug-taking behaviors [17,18]. Social networks, norms and social support shape how people access, interpret and use HIV-prevention information and education, the extent to which people make use of sexually transmitted disease treatments and HIV therapies, HIV counseling and testing, and affect adherence to therapies [19–21]. Economic and political conditions and dynamics affect what services are available and how inconvenient, costly, or stigmatizing it is to use them [22–31]. Finally, events, including large-scale epidemics themselves, that disrupt local or national social networks, communities, services, or social norms, lead to large-scale migration, or initiate large-scale mixing across new sexual or injecting networks, create the potential for risk behaviors or adherence failures that would have previously been prevented – and these, in turn, might lead to epidemic outbreaks [e.g., 32]. Emerging research issues for different processes and situations (A) Wars, transitions, ecological or economic disruptions Aral [5], Hankins et al. [33], and Friedman and Reid [34] have argued that transitions – like those in the former Soviet Union circa 1990, South Africa in the early 1990s, and Indonesia in the late 1990s – and wars can disrupt risk networks and protective social norms and thus lead to HIV outbreaks. However, such outbreaks are not inevitable. Gisselquist [35] and Spiegel [36] show that many African wars have not increased HIV transmission, and the case of the Philippines shows that transitions need not lead to outbreaks either. Furthermore, United States involvement in wars since the early 1990s seems not yet to have accelerated HIV transmission there. Although further research on whether wars or transitions are statistical risk factors for increases may be useful, we suggest that the historical record is strong enough to conclude that both wars and transitions can, on occasion, lead to epidemic outbreaks of HIV – that is, under some conditions, they increase social vulnerability to HIV [37–39]. On the other hand, under other conditions, outbreaks do not occur. This suggests that the following research questions should receive high priority. To identify which pre-existing conditions (including but not limited to gender relationships, sexual culture, and patterns of psychoactive drug use) and social processes can lead to increased HIV vulnerability as a consequence of war, transitions, or, perhaps, of economic breakdown or of ecological change such as global warming [40]. Such research should study how these events: (a) shape norms, behaviors, practices, and sexual, injection and care networks; and (b) affect gender and racial/ethnic power relationships, religious belief systems, poverty, and other middle-level socio-cultural and political economic relationships that influence HIV transmission and the capacity for prevention and care. To consider how affected populations or outsiders might intervene to avert or reduce epidemic outbreaks due to wars, transitions, or other events; and how such responses are shaped by pre-existing social identities, community resilience, patterns of social and political co-operation, and indigenous leadership [41–43]. In terms of research designs, much might be learned from qualitative and quantitative studies that compare countries that did and did not have outbreaks subsequent to such events; that study localities that did not have outbreaks within countries that did; and perhaps by rapid-response research teams that work with local participants and researchers to study emerging prevention efforts, network patterns, behaviors, pockets of emerging high-risk practices, and medical services, together with HIV and sexually transmitted infection rates, during and after wars and transitions. (B) Large-scale HIV epidemics, their related illness and death, and their attendant social instability and social disruption Just as wars, transitions and other processes can disrupt social norms and social, sexual and drug-use networks and communities, HIV/AIDS epidemics large enough to constitute socially-disruptive 'big events' can have similar effects. The research questions that are raised under (A) are also important in these circumstances. The exact definition of 'large enough' probably depends on the rate of spread of HIV over time and also on its socio-economic distribution – and research on how much disruption results from different prevalences and distributions of the virus might be useful. Research is also needed on how to minimize the destruction and maximize the constructive outcomes of social crises that the epidemic produces. Given the extent of HIV in many African countries, and its potential spread in Asia, the emerging social research issues for this context are clearly important [see, for example, 44–51]. These may include the following items. To identify and describe mid-level social forces (such as gender or racial/ethnic power relationships, religious conditions and beliefs, community resilience, and poverty) that create, sustain or reduce high-risk sexual or injection network patterns or behaviors that contribute to high HIV transmission rates – and, most important, to determine how to intervene in these. To describe possible impacts of the epidemic in terms of changes in social, sexual and drug-use networks, norms, culture, gender relationships, community resilience, etc. – and to determine what actions by local and outside agencies and by affected populations can mitigate further infections and social distress. To consider how affected populations and agencies might intervene or organize against individual, community and institutional stigma [52,53]. To determine how populations can be mobilized for risk reduction before mass illness or dying begin. To establish how health systems can be organized for disease control and care in poor countries or under conditions of disruptively high mortality. How can affected and unaffected populations assist in this? How can these efforts be sustained in contexts of socially-disruptive high morbidity and mortality? To determine how to navigate the AIDS crisis so that negative social consequences are minimized and positive social gains initiated or maintained. This question – monumental in scope – has been raised by Mary Crewe and her colleagues [54], and requires both scholarly input and popular action to resolve. (C) Government policies that ignore or defy available evidence Governments' responses to HIV and other health-related issues, and how they are shaped by social structures, competing priorities, and resource availability, are important to study. We emphasize here one aspect of this issue that has been important in the HIV/AIDS epidemic – government policies that ignore or defy available evidence. Since HIV is transmitted by culturally and religiously-sensitive and often, legally prohibited, behaviors, and since government health and policing policies on sex, reproduction, and illicit drug use may themselves contribute to HIV spread and/or to the failure to treat HIV, it is unsurprising that governments sometimes do not implement programs that research has determined to be effective. United States policies on syringe exchange, sex education in schools, programs for sex workers, and intellectual property rights are examples of this [18,55–57], as are the failure of many governments to introduce large-scale methadone programs for opiate users [27] and South Africa's failure for many years to accept that HIV was the proximate cause of the epidemic [58]. Despite this widespread pattern, there has been too little research on the following issues. Why governments ignore and/or flout scientific findings. Effective ways in which internal and external forces can act to change these policies. These are likely to vary depending on the reasons why each government acts this way and on economic, political and other contexts that affect governmental decision-making, including how mass media shape public agendas around HIV/AIDS [59]. (D) Stable societies without generalized epidemics A number of research issues exist for these societies [60,61]. Importantly, although countries such as the Netherlands, Brazil or Saudi Arabia can currently be classified as stable and without generalized HIV epidemics, HIV could spread rapidly under social crises such as those Rischard [3,4] identified, or, indeed, under conditions such as those discussed in the previous section. Furthermore, countries with a stable and comparatively small HIV prevalence may believe that the HIV 'problem' has been solved. Thus, to better manage current issues and to avert possible future disasters, research is needed on the following topics. How to sustain and strengthen cultures that support and care for the sick and that reduce risk behavior and stigmatization over long periods of time; and how to maintain socio-behavioral conditions that limit HIV spread and the rate at which viral mutation reduces the therapeutic efficacy of medications [9,62]. How to develop cultures of risk-reduction and care in countries or localities where stigma is widespread against marginalized groups and/or people infected with HIV [63]. How to mobilize at-risk populations that have not yet created effective cultures of risk reduction and caring. Potential sources of local or national HIV epidemic outbreaks. We suggest that the following questions should be prioritized since they have received less attention than increases in risk behavior: what social and economic processes shape sexual and injection networks in a locality? As economic development projects can disperse and diffuse networks and communities with high HIV prevalence into localities with low infection rates, and since the normative impacts of such relocations can lead to high-risk behaviors, practices, and networks [11,14], what prevention approaches can either prevent these dislocations or mitigate their effects? (E) Emerging biomedicine Medical advances can generate urgent needs for social research. Such needs can include finding ways to implement new medical possibilities but also ways to cope with any (often unintended) negative social consequences of new discoveries; for example, the impact of antiretroviral therapy on risk-reduction among gay men in some countries [64]. Although it is impossible to forecast biomedical progress, the following issues should become foci of increased research effort. To investigate impacts of introduction of new treatments and concomitant increases in HIV-testing on stigma and discrimination [65]. To determine how medical technologies such as vaccines, microbicides or pre-exposure prophylaxis affect behavioral prevention measures and political and economic support for prevention programs. This is especially important for middle to low efficacy prevention technologies [66–68]. To consider social and cultural impacts of anti-HIV circumcision programs [69–74]. Although recent findings indicate that circumcision lowers the likelihood of HIV infection [69], there is concern that circumcised men who view themselves as 'protected' might engage in more unsafe sex. Adult circumcision might also carry risks, especially if performed by inadequately trained medical personnel or traditional healers. Furthermore, since circumcision is deeply rooted in religious systems and in some countries, such as India, is a mark of racial/ethnic difference, circumcision programs potentially could discredit or weaken HIV prevention and care efforts. To identify socio-cultural, organizational, and political economic barriers which impede vaccination among 'general' and/or oppressed or marginalized populations [75–77]. (F) Possible future widespread failure of previously-effective therapies due to viral evolution or social disorganization Although none of us like to think about it, the race between our ability to devise new medications and the evolutionary mutability of HIV could quite possibly be lost. This could happen because of possible limits to the menu of therapies, the loss of economic or other capacity to develop new therapies (perhaps due to ecologically-generated socio-economic dislocations or a worldwide depression), or socio-cultural disruption due to wars or widespread assumption of power by religious fundamentalisms [78,79]. These circumstances could result in considerable increases in morbidity and mortality in regions of the world where therapy has been accessible to the infected, and could also arouse blaming and stigmatization of the sick. Social research might find solutions to these potential problems before they arise. We suggest that the following issues should be addressed. How to minimize traumatic despair (under different conditions of community resilience and leadership) if therapeutic failure leads to resumed mass morbidity and mortality among the infected. How to maintain or regenerate risk reduction under these conditions. How to prevent political blaming and restriction of medications under these conditions. Obstacles to conducting such research Throughout the epidemic, research funding has been scarce, as have researchers to conduct such research, and high-status journals willing to publish it. In part, this results from long-standing differences between scientific disciplines [80]. Few laboratory scientists have training in social scientific theory or methodologies or in social or behavioral epidemiology. Epidemiologists are more likely to be familiar with social-psychologically oriented behavioral theories, and to have been trained in epidemiologic approaches that treat the individual as the unit of analysis and theorization. However, such training provides little basis for understanding or evaluating social research at higher levels of analysis or using theoretical frameworks that incorporate central concepts such as history, power, and culture. Furthermore, such research can appear to the untrained to have controversial political implications and thus to be 'unscientific' regardless of whether it is based on scientifically valid methods. Questions of what counts as 'appropriate' methods profoundly shape what we know, which affects what social researchers can do and publish in public health [81]. Sociologists, anthropologists, political scientists, and economists often lack training in natural sciences. In many countries, these disciplines emphasize research that develops the social sciences in their own terms – and thus social scientists risk rejection (and reduced career opportunities) if they engage in applied research rather than research on higher-status questions [82]. What do these disjunctures of expertise and interest lead to? Biomedical research funding for HIV, whether provided by governments or pharmaceutical companies, has overwhelmingly concentrated on basic science, clinical research, and epidemiology using the individual as the unit of analysis, and prevention research focusing on behaviors of individuals [83]. Review committees for major funding agencies such as the US National Institutes of Health are almost always comprised of researchers in these specialties. The few social scientists on these committees have usually spent their careers conducting research on behavior change or HIV risk factors at the level of the individual, and thus have difficulty judging proposals on the topics discussed in this article. Editors and reviewers for the major journals in the field, including this one, have similar strengths and weaknesses. Social science funding agencies (which typically disburse much less money) tend to fund research on the 'core problems' of their disciplines (such as social stratification, cultural dynamics, family and interpersonal structures and dynamics, social cohesion, or deviance), rather than applied problems which may be of lower status within the discipline and, arguably, more appropriate for funding by (socially-educated) biomedical agencies. Even such sub-fields as medical sociology and medical anthropology focus on topics such as cultural definitions and beliefs about illness and health; differences in morbidity and mortality by stress level, socio-economic status, gender, or race/ethnicity; and the formal organization and financing of medical services – rather than on social epidemiology, urban health, or questions of prevention or care for infectious diseases. Thus, these issues receive little research funding; and social scientists who study them risk both failing to obtain funding and stigmatization within their professions [84,85]. We have no magic solution. What we do suggest is that the institutions of HIV research, including funders, journals, and academic institutions, acknowledge the seriousness of the problem. The mutual causal interactions between social, political and economic processes and the ever-changing HIV/AIDS epidemic that are discussed in this review are extremely important. They could determine the fates of millions of people and perhaps even the socio-cultural survival of some nations or ethnic groups. We propose that serious discussions be initiated among those funders, journal editors, and social researchers who have engaged with these issues to establish strategies for incorporating social researchers within the structures of the field, and to identify ways that relevant research results can influence by and community-based organizations, and affected A number of and mid-level social factors shape HIV transmission and care by risk networks, behaviors, and the and of sexually transmitted infections and HIV and care. Social processes such as wars and transitions, as as the interactions among emerging rates of disease viral and the social to these, need to be so we can and reduce the that AIDS The relative lack of this of research has the response – both individual and – to the the issues discussed in this paper do not include all of the important social research issues that need to be addressed. important research is at the and individual levels of important social research issues will that as yet be To the extent that and social research, and so social researchers to the field, we will be more likely to identify these issues and conduct the research in time to maximize and minimize The to acknowledge from and The would like to acknowledge support from a number of was by National on projects and to and among and its norms risk in social and for and HIV and by the of Health and was by the Research Social of HIV/AIDS and was by National on norms risk in social support was provided by International and Research HIV

REVIEWS 581 war did not have sufficiently deep roots to sustain Russia through the turmoil of revolutions and a civil war that drove wedges deep into Russian society. The Soviet regime largely ignored the direct experience of the First World War, subsuming it into the October Revolution, and failing to construct memorials to the soldiers who had died fighting for Russia. As Stockdale suggests, the new regime used some of the generic qualities identified during the war — love of the motherland and the like — in its own construction of a Soviet identity but the war itself, however, remained as a ghostly presence hidden behind Bolshevik ideas of patriotism and citizenship. School of History Peter Waldron University of East Anglia Motta, Giuseppe. The Great War against Eastern European Jewry, 1914–1920. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2017. 270 pp. Tables. Notes. Bibliography. £61.99. Giuseppe Motta’s book examines the dynamics and consequences of violence inflicted on the Jews of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires during and after the Great War. Based largely on secondary sources and the documents of the Joint Distribution Committee, it focuses on the pitiful situation of Russian and Polish Jews in wartime and during the revolutionary turmoil, which lasted until the early 1920s. Throughout this turbulent period, Jewish communities were targeted by the belligerent armies and insurgent bands, in part due to traditional religious and socio-economic antagonisms, but also on account of an alleged worldwide ‘Judeo-communist’ conspiracy. As a result, robberies, expulsions and pogroms claimed thousands of victims, turning tens of thousands of Jews into refugees and unwanted migrants. The book’s strengths lie in its rich historiographic foundation and abundance in factual details. Well-written and free of academic jargon, it should inspire interest not only amongst scholars, but also general readers. The author methodically describes the evolution of anti-Jewish prejudices from the nineteenth century to the deportations by the Russian army in World War One, when the existing negative stereotypes of Jews were reinforced by a ‘spyfever ’, which permeated all war-zones. Motta also shows that in the wake of the state-collapse in Russia and Austro-Hungary in 1917–18, anti-Jewish violence became much more widespread and extreme, often acquiring the form of punitive expeditions (p. 81). Nor did the end of the Russian civil wars bring relief to the beleaguered Jews, as various insurgencies continued to claim their victims (p. 167). SEER, 96, 3, JULY 2018 582 The situation of Russian and Ukrainian Jews in 1914–20 has been wellcharted , but the book’s most original elements are its detailed descriptions of the activities of the American Joint Distribution Committee and the Russian Jewish Aid Society to the Victims of War (EVOPO), which attempted to alleviate the plight of Jews by sending funds and acting through diplomatic channels (pp. 41, 57), and the travails of Jewish refugees in the Far East. TheGreatWarconstitutesagoodoverviewofoneofthemosttragicperiodsin Jewish history, but its main flaw is its lack of any sort of conceptual framework (possibly because its main target is a general audience). Consequently, all the chapterstelltheirownparticularstory,whichcompelsthereadertosurmisethe correlations between them and the author’s principal objectives. Accordingly, without some form of analytical apparatus, the book’s title appears misleading, for its geographic scope in fact covers the Pale of Settlement within the Russian Empire and Galicia and Bukovina within Austro-Hungary. The reader is thus left to guess, while other important territories of East European Jewry such as Hungary, Romania or western Poland are not covered. Also, since World War One witnessed the large-scale persecution of non-Jewish ethno-cultural or national groups — such as the Germans in Russia, the Rusyns in AustroHungary and the Armenians in Turkey — the book would have benefited from placing the plight of Jews in a broader historical context, briefly highlighting the commonalities and differences of these cases. Numerous inconsistencies in name-and-locality spelling demonstrate the difficulties of dealing with regions with frequently changing borders. The author disregards any convention (perhaps an explanation or a chart of alternative names would have been helpful), using Polish, Russian, English and Ukrainian spellings randomly — for example, Chernihiv in Ukrainian, but Ekaterinoslav in Russian, although both places are located...

In November 2013 – February 2014, The Greek community of Odessa is a bright phenomenon in the history of both the city on the Black Sea and the entire Hellenic world in general. Until recently, scholars focused their effort on studying the political and social ‘event’ history of the Greek presence on the coast of the Black Sea. It was only in the late twentieth century that researchers started to demonstrate a shift to studies of daily life, social structures and demographic characteristics. The Hellenic Foundation for Culture, in collaboration with the State Archive in Odessa Region, published and compiled an electronic version of a database of records from metric books of the Greek Church of Holy Trinity (1808-1920). The database permits to study in detail a series of important characteristics of the historical demography of the Greek community of Odessa within a broad chronological range. Drawing from these data, this article addresses one of the aspects of natality in the Greek community of Odessa in the late nineteenth century. Social changes find their reflection in the conceptual projection of demographic transitions. It suggests division of reproduction into three phases – agrarian (or traditional), transitional and modern (or rational) societies. The first phase shows very high birth and death rates, which demonstrate a certain equilibrium. The population shows a large number of children and a rapid replacement of generations. The population size during this period remains stable. During the second phase (so-called transitional society), the important socio-economic transformations (industrialization, urbanization, improvements in health care and education, etc.) cause preservation of a high birth rate and an abrupt drop of the death rate. The gap between the birth and death rates increases leading to a rapid population growth. We can examine these characteristics in the Greek population of Odessa during these two phases (the third phase of modern society is, of course, omitted). From the Censuses of 1892 and 1897 we can calculate main numerical birth coefficients, which shall allow reconstructing a general demographic model of the Greek population of Odessa. Unfortunately, because of the lack of sufficient data we are not able to trace the dynamics of these coefficients back into the earlier periods. Here we focus on only one historical-cum-anthropological aspect - the socio-territorial parameters of births. Calculation of these coefficients in our study is complicated by the fact that some part of the Greek population of Odessa were born outside the city (and even outside the country). Place of birth allows for retrospective identification of the population structure of the city. In spite of the relatively small portion of people who were born in Odessa (45,2 %) or resided in the city for over 20 years (7,9%), there is observed a significant natural population increase. It already clearly prevailed over the inflow of immigrants. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, there was a decrease in number of immigrants of the first generation (born outside Odessa) and an increase in number of those of the second generation (born in Odessa) as well as a marked decrease in number of Greek-speaking people who had become Russian subjects. These trends demonstrate the evolution of the Greek community toward its assimilation with the Russian social milieu, which was a natural trend for all foreigners during the period when they switched to a more permanent residence in the city. The decreasing number of Greeks in Odessa, in spite of the increase in number of Greek subjects from 1892 to 1897, indicates that citizenship apparently represented the last resort for preserving the “national identity” at the level that permitted to enjoy social and legal protection of people by the Greek authorities. Otherwise, the long-lasting residence of foreigners in the Russian Empire unavoidably led to their Russification. The decrease in number of economically powerful Russian subjects of Greek origin perhaps can be explained by their outflow into other countries or other cities of the Russian Empire, which were acquiring much of economic interest in the late nineteenth century (e.g., Nikolaev and the ports of the Sea of Azov). Our analysis of the socio-territorial structure of births in the Greek community of Odessa revealed its eclectic character manifested in that only about a half of them (nearly 54% in 1892 and 41% in 1897) were “Odessans” by birth, while another half were first-generation newcomers. The decreasing share of people born in the city is a reflection of both the general trends for Odessa and the intensification of migration. The “geography of origin” of the Greek newcomers is very informative. The majority of these Greeks were subjects of foreign countries born outside the Russian Empire. Among them, the leading positions was held by “Turkish subjects” followed by “German” and “Greek” citizens. This composition has a reflection upon the scientific understanding of the term “indigenous Odessan”, which may represent a rather idealized notion than reality. The conclusions can be also applied to other ethno-cultural communities that lived in Odessa during the same period (a simple comparison with general parameters argues for their applicability at such scales).