Identifying key actors, barriers and opportunities to lead a transition towards sustainable forest management: an application to the Basque Country, Spain

Forest ecosystems are a prime example of the heated debates that have arisen around how forests should be managed, and what services and benefits they should deliver. The European transitions in governance to and from communist regimes have had significant impacts on forests and their management. Unstable legislative and institutional changes prior to, during, and after a communist regime, combined with unique remnant areas of high-conservation-value forests, make Romania an ideal case study to explore the social–ecological transitions of forest landscapes. The aim of this paper is two-fold. First, we present the origins of, the evolution of, and the current state of forest management and ownership in Romania during transitions between the pre-communist (–1945), communist (1945–1989), and EU periods (2007–). Second, we focus on the enablers and barriers in Romania towards sustainable forest management as defined by pan-European forest policies. We used a semi-systematic, five-step scientific literature review on forest ownership, governance, and management in Romania. The analysis shows that both enablers (e.g., forest certification) and barriers (e.g., redundancy and the questionable effectiveness of the network of protected areas; illegal, unsustainable, and unreported logging; loopholes in the legislative framework) have contributed to the current approaches to interpreting forests, forestry, and forest management. The installation of the communist regime translated into sustained wood yield forest management under singular forest ownership, which opposed the previous system and forest ownership pluralism. In the post-communist period, forestland restitution led to significant legislative changes, but forest management must still confront remnant elements of the communist approach. Both communist and post-communist policies related to forests have shaped the evolution of forest landscape management in Romania, thus stressing the need to learn from the past towards securing sustainable forest management into the future. These lessons provide insights on both positive and negative drivers of forest management, which can contribute to smooth future transition towards more sustainable forest management practices.

Sustainable forest management (SFM) plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting livelihoods, and mitigating climate change. This study was conducted to explore the management practices and user perspectives regarding sustainable forest management in Nepal, focusing on community forestry and government-led initiatives. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected through surveys, interviews, focus group discussions and field observations. A total of 180 user’s opinion were collected in 9 selected forest user groups from four district of Nepal (i.e. Ilam, Jhapa, Sarlahi, and Makawanpur). The study revealed that major forest management practices applied by community users’ are thinning, pruning, and improvement felling. Majority of the users (70.56%) were unsure about the forest management practices prescribed in the Operational plans (OPs). Accordingly, most users (92.78%) were agreed with the opinions that they need to be trained about forest management practices and its implementation. Majority of the users (92.00%) also agreed that participatory forest management modalities like Community Forest (CF), Collaborative Forest Management (CFM) and Leasehold Forest (LHF) area protecting biodiversity and reducing environmental risks. However, people believe that arbitrary policy changes was the main challenges for proper implementation of sustainable forest management practices. Therefore, strengthening capacity-building programs, enhancing government support, developing a consistent guideline, and promoting adaptive management practices are essential for improving sustainable forest resource management in Nepal.

Conservation, protection, and proper utilization of forests play an important role in environmental sustainability of the globe. The ultimate goal of sustainable forest management is to create a balanced and appropriate solution for human well-being and preservation of forest ecosystems. However, one of the prominent obstacles to achieve this goal is the gap existing between governmental development aims and the perspectives of local people and communities. Forest conservation requires an integrated management that works in partnership with local communities. Local and community-based forest management is a multi-dimensional approach to sustainable forest management in which different stakeholders with different interests play a part in achieving a common goal. However, little research has been done in this area. In this regard, the main purpose of this chapter was to examine the role of participation of local community in sustainable land and forest management. This purpose fulfilled through six steps. In the first step, the role of community participation in sustainable forest management and its typology were explained. I the second and third steps, the barriers and drivers of local communities’ participation were introduced, respectively. In the fourth step, techniques for participation of local communities in forest management were analyzed. In the fifth step, some practical experiences related to the participation of local communities in forest management were highlighted. In the sixtieth or final step, some social principles were introduced for agricultural system and interventions aiming at sustainable management of forests and lands.

A growing world population and rapid expansion of cities increase the pressure on basic resources such as water, food and energy. To safeguard the provision of these resources, restoration and sustainable management of landscapes is pivotal, including sustainable forest and water management. Sustainable forest management includes forest conservation, restoration, forestry and agroforestry practices. Interlinkages between forests and water are fundamental to moderate water budgets, stabilize runoff, reduce erosion and improve biodiversity and water quality. Sweden has gained substantial experience in sustainable forest management in the past century. Through significant restoration efforts, a largely depleted Swedish forest has transformed into a well-managed production forest within a century, leading to sustainable economic growth through the provision of forest products. More recently, ecosystem services are also included in management decisions. Such a transformation depends on broad stakeholder dialog, combined with an enabling institutional and policy environment. Based on seminars and workshops with a wide range of key stakeholders managing Sweden’s forests and waters, this article draws lessons from the history of forest management in Sweden. These lessons are particularly relevant for countries in the Global South that currently experience similar challenges in forest and landscape management. The authors argue that an integrated landscape approach involving a broad array of sectors and stakeholders is needed to achieve sustainable forest and water management. Sustainable landscape management—integrating water, agriculture and forests—is imperative to achieving resilient socio-economic systems and landscapes.

This paper uncovers the importance of people’s place-values on sustainable forest management, and how such values can be incorporated into forest management actions and decision-making. Specifically, it focuses on mapping economic and cultural values on forest ecosystem services; assesses how non-materials and materials benefit from forest ecosystem cause landscape fragmentation; and how this information could assist in better forest planning and management. The data were collected from ten villages surrounding the Ngezi forest reserve in Pemba, Tanzania. Data were collected through participatory mapping, field observation, and focus group discussions. A map of place-values for each respondent was transferred from paper to digital format, digitized and coded using the GIS, and analysed using kernel density. Non-spatial data were processed and integrated into GIS-based spatial analysis. The results indicate that only 12 areas were identified as very high-valued and these require careful consideration for sustainable forest planning and management. About 4 out of 6 very high-valued areas for material services are found inside the reserve. The areas outside the reserve are undervalued and not utilized effectively for material services. Contrary to cultural services, only 1 out of 6 very high-valued places is located inside the reserve. Furthermore, economic situations, together with social driving forces, have been important determinants of forest values in the areas. Therefore, placevalues issues, particularly economic development outcomes, preservation of the aesthetics and improvement of recreational amenities should be considered when examining sustainable forest resource management.

This chapter defines and classifies various types of partnerships such as public-private, company-community, non-governmental organisation (NGO)-community, multi-sector or intersectoral, research and political partnerships. It analyzes how partnerships for sustainable forest and tree resource management fit in with mainstream forest management thinking, general development paradigms, Latin American forest policies and the broader academic debate on social movements and multi-spatial interactions. The goals of the partnerships are related to forest conservation, responsible forest use and/or the sustainable production of forest and tree resource products. The chapter also summarizes the lessons learned from the cases in Latin America with regard to the conditions under which partnerships for sustainable forest and resource management can reconcile multiple interests and contribute to pro-poor, socially just and environmentally-friendly forest governance.Keywords: company-community partnerships; environmentally-friendly forest governance; intersectoral partnerships; Latin American forest policies; non-governmental organization (NGO)-community partnerships; political partnerships; public-private partnerships; research partnerships; sustainable forest management; tree resource management

SYNOPSIS This paper is intended as a basis for discussion of relevant issues regarding management for sustainability in the industrial plantation forests of South Africa. A brief outline of questions relating to sustainability of this sector is followed by a discussion of the concept of environmental sustainability and sustainable forest management. The policies current in South Africa are outlined. A brief review of optional policy instruments for attaining sustainable forest management follows. These include: — prescriptive vs effects-based planning for guiding the choice of development options; — several aspects of environmental management, i.e. of managing for sustainability; — defining sustainability: principles, criteria and indicators; — benchmarking sustainability: performance standards; — achieving sustainability: the process of improving performance through environmental management systems; — recognising sustainability: certification; — rewarding sustainability: labelling; — codes of practice; — the issue of the level at which to manage for sustainability. The paper concludes with suggested requirements for policy implementation. A basis should be laid for a choice of approach to achieving sustainable forest management in the forest industry in South Africa, This approach should — promote a competitive sustainable and equitable sector; — be based upon substantial consensus among stakeholders, and hence robust in the face of public scrutiny; — satisfy local, national, SADC and international norms and expectations; — take account of issues of scale of application; — ideally, lead to an accord among stakeholders that will assist in gaining a concerted approach to assuring sustainable forest management in South Africa. The following as outputs of a review process and a workshop of experts are identified: — identification of optional instruments for achieving sustainable forest management, with the focus on criteria and indicators of sustainability at the core of sustainable forest management systems and performance standards, or the alternatives; — appraisal of these options in terms of relevance, feasibility, and affordability; — recommendations for the way forward.

Policy makers, scientists and civil society are involved in the development of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management (SFM), reflecting the growing worldwide demand for addressing sustainable development and environmental governance management goals. Such frameworks have been largely derived from expert-led or community-based approaches. This article details the identification process of criteria and indicators (C & I) based on the international principles of SFM through the analysis of a hybrid approach that uses both a top-down (TD) and a bottom-up (BU) approach. The aim of this article is to discuss how the two approaches have worked to incorporate the different views, opinions and experiences of experts and stakeholders. National-level C & I are then compared with those at the local level, making specific reference to sustainable community forest (CF) management. For the TD approach, a Delphi survey was conducted where 121 experts shared their knowledge, experience and judgements in assessing a set of 72 indicators with regard to the applicability, practicality and importance of national, regional and CF management in Nepal. For the BU approach, C & I for CF management were developed with the direct involvement of various stakeholders. It was shown that such a hybrid approach is feasible from a methodological point of view, but a framework is needed by the government to more fully utilize the opportunities of the C & I development process in the SFM context. The results of this study also help to bridge the gap between the ad hoc planning of decision makers and the requirement for a holistic management system, which includes participatory processes. Based on the conclusions of this study, general recommendations for the methodological design of C & I development in similar studies are given.

Despite a moratorium by the Indonesian government rejecting new logging concessions since May 2011, Indonesia saw 840,000 hectares of forests cleared in 2012 and deforestation levels continue to increase at an alarming rate every year. International experiences have shown that chances of sustainable long-term forest management improve when the ownership and management of forest resources remain with local communities. Once they have secured long-term access to resources through property rights they become confident enough to widen their time horizon and to invest in sustainable forestry practices. However, Indonesian forests are owned by the national government, which then delegates management rights to local levels of government. The ensuing struggle over control of forest resources between all levels of government caused weak legal and regulatory frameworks and a major barrier for sustainable forest management. Considering these complexities of forest governance, there is no simple way towards sustainable forest management and to the prevention of further deforestation. Nevertheless, several case studies from Indonesia and abroad can serve to inspire the following policy recommendations in Indonesia. They are based on the existing Indonesian system of forest classification and allowable land uses. For-profit businesses should be allowed to build and manage eco-tourism facilities in conservation forests (hutan konservasi). These activities will support the preservation of ecosystems and biodiversity. Protection forests (hutan lindung) are meant to prevent floods, control erosion, and maintain soil fertility. For their sustainable management, usufructuary rights should be granted to local communities allowing them to manage these forests and giving them limited rights to access forest resources. Finally, production forests (hutan produksi), where timber and non-timber products can be extracted, should either be handed over to local communities or be privatized. The national government should move away from approaching those forest areas as a source of national state revenues. Instead, it should allow these resources to support local income generation and growth.

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has generated significant impacts on the forestry sector. Employment layoffs have led to an increase in return migration, resulting in additional labor supply and heightened family economic burdens. This research employs the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework to examine and predict sustainable forest management practices among families managing customary forests and village forests in Bali. Methods Purposive sampling was used to collect data from 71 managers of customary forests and village forests in Tenganan and Wanagiri. Partial least square-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze the acquired data. Results The findings demonstrated that TPB can explain the sustainable forest management. The incorporation of an additional construct, Tri Hita Karana (THK), enhanced the model’s predictive power for both managerial intentions and behaviors in sustainable forest management. Specifically, THK influences management intentions through the mediation of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Conclusions This study established that THK, a fundamental value system in Balinese society, serves an antecedent predictor of behavioral intentions toward sustainable forest management. The relationship between THK and sustainable forest management intentions is mediated by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. This research makes significant theoretical and managerial contributions. First, it validates the established TPB framework within the context of COVID-19’s impact in Bali. Additionally, it provides scholars with insights for identifying other potential constructs that may influence forest land managers’ behavior.

SUMMARY The African resource, and in particular the Congo Basin contains the world's second largest forest area, after the Amazon, and there is a global concern for it to be sustainably managed. Practical solutions are essential if sustainable forest management is to be achieved, considering the costs and technical capacity involved. However, a certain number of difficulties must be overcome such as ill-adapted forestry laws, lack of necessary technical capacity amongst the managers and the actual cost of management. Solutions for sustainable forest management therefore include training and negotiations to better adapt legislation as well as practical issues such as reduced impact logging and the promotion of secondary species which will not only have a positive effect on the regeneration and management of the forest, but which are also more efficient in terms of costs. Certification is also a means of achieving a premium to offset the increased costs of sustainable forest management.

Galicia is the most important forestry region of Spain, but its potential of producing the forest products is underdeveloped. A healthy and growing forestry sector could be an engine for regional and rural economic development, but forest management is impeded by forest ownership patterns. Most forests in Galicia are privately owned in small, scattered holdings that make it difficult to carry out the sustainable forest management required for forest sector development.A comprehensive sustainable forest management (SFM) strategy, based upon internationally recognized principles of sustainability, has been proposed as a means of rectifying the situation in Galicia. This strategy involves eight lines of actions that include such initiatives as improved legislation, increased public education and participation, and a new process for sustainable forest management that would be run by the government.This paper outlines the strategy, then goes on to describe new forest management processes and supporting technologies that are seen as necessary for promoting sustainable forest management in a region predominated by small forest ownerships. The new process will be based upon hierarchical and integrated forest management concepts, but will involve innovative approaches to regional and forest district management. The paper ends with a brief description of the initial steps that have been taken to implement the SFM Strategy of Galicia.

Sustainable forest management: global trends and opportunities

Forest plantations are expanding worldwide. The primary objective of plantations is to grow trees to produce various wood products. Other than wood, forest plantations also provide a multitude of environmental, economic and social benefits. Their development facilitates the rehabilitation of degraded sites and helps in the protection of natural environments. However, various environmental impacts are associated with the establishment of forest plantations - site degradation, biodiversity loss, effect on water quality and quantity and risks of pests and diseases. Specific to this study, writers in plantation forestry have raised the issue of the displacement effect of plantations to the natural forests. They said that forest plantations complement natural forests; they do not substitute. The plantation policy of the Philippines was formulated to supply the wood requirement of the forest industries and to rehabilitate degraded and marginal lands. In the establishment of plantations, large areas of the natural forests were affected. The study aims to analyse the displacement effect of plantations on the native dipterocarp forests. Analysis of the problem is important to define the role of forest plantations in the forestry sector. The research is divided into two major components: analysis of plantation policies and evaluation of policy implementation. In order to analyse the problem, four research questions are developed. The discussion is a focussed synthesis of relevant literature, public documents and the author's personal observations. The analysis of data gathered from project files archived in the Forest Management Bureau and in the regional offices of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources in the Philippines is a major part of the study. Result of the analysis show that early plantation policies and their modifications allowed the conversion of degraded and healthy native dipterocarp forests into industrial plantations. Most plantation projects were former timber concessions. In order to encourage the active participation of the private sector, the policy combined the management of natural forests and plantations in one management agreement. Plantation developers were given the incentive to log natural forests while growing tree crops. The environmental impacts of plantation projects were not properly assessed. Under the previous policy, plantations were not considered as environmentally critical projects. In the Philippines, the sustainability of plantations is poorly understood. The development of industrial plantations did not ease the pressure to log the natural forests. The combined production from plantations and natural forests was insufficient to meet the domestic demand. Results further show that the level of development of plantation projects was very low. Most projects are still categorised as grasslands and brushlands. Only a small area of plantations was established. However, because of the continuous depletion of the natural forests, it is projected that plantations will gradually expand and will play a significant role in the Philippine forestry sector. The sustainability of plantations is a major issue. Plantation management is entirely different from the management of natural forests. While plantations provide substitute wood products, they also introduce a new ecosystem. The replacement of native forests with plantations does not conform with the international principles in sustainable forest management. This thesis has identified five policy recommendations to promote the sustainable management of plantations in the Philippines. Key words: forest plantations, displacement effect, sustainability

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has generated significant impacts on the forestry sector. Employment layoffs have led to an increase in return migration, resulting in additional labor supply and heightened family economic burdens. This research employs the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework to examine and predict sustainable forest management practices among families managing customary forests and village forests in Bali. Methods Purposive sampling was used to collect data from 71 managers of customary forests and village forests in Tenganan and Wanagiri. Partial least square-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze the acquired data. Results The findings demonstrated that TPB can explain the sustainable forest management. The incorporation of an additional construct, Tri Hita Karana (THK), enhanced the model’s predictive power for both managerial intentions and behaviors in sustainable forest management. Specifically, THK influences management intentions through the mediation of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Conclusions This study established that THK , a fundamental value system in Balinese society, serves as an antecedent predictor of behavioral intentions toward sustainable forest management. The relationship between THK and sustainable forest management intentions is mediated by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. This research makes significant theoretical and managerial contributions. First, it validates the established TPB framework within the context of COVID-19’s impact in Bali. Additionally, it provides scholars with insights for identifying other potential constructs that may influence forest land managers’ behavior.