To die is ‘to run (away)’

This paper aims to explore French animal figurative expressions focused on « chien(dog), chat(cat), cheval(horse)» and to examine how their meaning extension can be categorized based on conceptual metaphor. French language is reported to be rich in figurative expressions, especially animal figurative ones are heard nearly in everyday situation. In the field of cognitive semantics, there has been much research (domestic and foreign) concerning idioms, metaphor and body terms based on various individual languages. However, relatively little attention has been paid to animal figurative expressions and few studies have dealt with them in French. In this study, the figurative meanings containing chien, chat, cheval were analyzed based on conceptual metaphor as well as on semantic molecules related to ‘animal’, and their meaning extension was categorized. Our findings through this study showed that firstly, three animal figurative expressions as well as their extended meanings could be categorized. Which related to human beings, cognition, appearance, attitude, action, situation or relationship with others. Secondly, there were differences in semantic categories of figurative expressions by animals. Chien expression usually referred to negative properties, chat related to both positive and negative ones. Also, cheval expression was represented by positive properties as well as qualities (e.g. ways, means). Furthermore, animal expressions demonstrate different French speakers’ modes of thought compared with Koreans.

This paper explores the potential of cognitive linguistic notions such as conceptual metaphor and conceptual metonym for comparing the figurative phraseologies of English and Malay and anticipating second language learner difficulty. A comparative analysis is undertaken that identifies six types of relationship between figurative expressions in the two languages. It is suggested that identification of linguistic and conceptual similarities and differences in figurative expressions enable us to anticipate the types of problems that may be encountered by Malay-speaking learners of English in the acquisition of English figurative language. A comparative analysis is used to develop a set of production and comprehension tasks that aim to measure figurative proficiency. This is tested with a group of 36 Malay-speaking tertiary learners of English. It is found that figurative expressions with an equivalent conceptual basis and linguistic form are the easiest. The most difficult are those with (1) a different conceptual basis and an equivalent linguistic form and (2) culture-specific expressions that have a different conceptual basis and a different linguistic form. There is some evidence that learners may resort to the L1 conceptual basis when processing unfamiliar L2 figurative language. There is also evidence of intralingual confusion between higher and lower frequency L2 figurative expressions. It is more advantageous to draw learners' attention to the conceptual bases of L2 figurative expressions in circumstances where they differ from those of the L1 than when the conceptual bases are similar (especially where learners' L1 is unrelated to their L2).

Most studies about figurative language learning focus on metaphor rather than metonymy; however, the interactions of metonymy and metaphor are so intricate that the boundary forms not a dichotomy but a continuum. Such a continuum and its influences on figurative language learning have not been studied in depth. The present study investigates EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners’ responses to different metonymic and metaphoric expressions. Twenty-eight Taiwanese EFL learners participated in the study, which asked them to rate 40 sentences based on their certainty of figurative language use. The results show that EFL learners were capable of distinguishing between sentences with and without figurative expressions, and were more certain in judging metaphoric expressions than metonymic ones. Moreover, they found it easier to recognise expressions of the emotion anger than those of other topics. Their performances indicate that EFL learners are able to use their shared experiences to identify figurative language uses. This study suggests that it may be beneficial to integrate ideas of conceptual metonymy and metaphor to raise learners’ awareness of abstract but universal concepts involved in figurative expressions.

This paper examines how metaphors and proverbs reflect the culture and identity of specific ethnic groups. Focusing on the Toposa people, a herding community in South Sudan, it demonstrates that metaphors and proverbs are structured around culturally salient domains such as warfare, marriage, famine and hunger, and name-giving, among others. These figurative expressions are embedded in cognitive frameworks that, once activated, facilitate the comprehension of non-literal language. The analysis is grounded in Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), which provides a framework for understanding how abstract concepts are mapped onto concrete experiences. Warfare metaphors and proverbs reflect the lived experiences of warriors on the battlefield, while marriage-related figurative expressions highlight the roles and expectations of women within marital relationships. Metaphors and proverbs associated with famine and hunger exemplify the harsh realities of the environment, and those connected to name-giving reveal the characteristics or virtues attributed to individuals. Collectively, these figurative expressions encode and transmit societal values and norms: a successful warrior is revered, an obedient wife brings harmony and happiness to the household, a husband is expected to act as protector, and metaphorical names underscore the esteem granted to bravery in battle while condemning laziness and foolishness. the metaphors and proverbs of the Toposa not only convey literal and figurative meaning but also serve as cultural markers that reinforce social norms, ethical expectations, and communal identity.

Conceptual Metaphors and Figurative Language Interpretation: Food for Thought?

Figurative expressions have been shown to play a special role in evoking affective responses, as compared to their literal counterparts. This study provides the first database of conceptual metaphors that includes ratings of affective properties beyond psycholinguistic properties. To allow for the investigation of natural reading processes, 64 natural stories were created, half of which contained two or three conceptual metaphors that relied on the same mapping, whereas the other half contained the metaphors' literal counterparts. To allow for tighter control and manipulation of the different properties, 120 isolated sentences were also created, half of which contained one metaphorical word, which was replaced by its literal rendering in the other half. All stimuli were rated for emotional valence, arousal, imageability, and metaphoricity, and the pairs of metaphorical and literal stimuli were rated for their similarity in meaning. A measure of complexity was determined and computed. The stories were also rated for naturalness and understandability, and the sentences for familiarity. Differences between the metaphorical and literal stimuli and relationships between the affective and psycholinguistic variables were explored and are discussed in light of extant empirical research. In a nutshell, the metaphorical stimuli were rated as being higher in emotional arousal and easier to imagine than their literal counterparts, thus confirming arole of metaphor in evoking emotion and in activating sensorimotor representations. Affective variables showed the typical U-shaped relationship consistently found in word databases, whereby increasingly positive and negative valence is associated with higher arousal. Finally, interesting differences between the stories and sentences were observed.

Idiomatic and proverbial expressions are important components of the oral tradition of Sesotho sa Leboa, and therefore a knowledge of the literal meaning of words as they appear in dictionaries without inclusion of their figurative meaning seems to be a shortcoming. An idiom or a proverb possesses one basic meaning, i.e. the meaning to which the idiom or proverb is basically meant to refer, but each idiom or proverb is made up of several lexical items. Each of these lexical items has its own meaning, which usually differs from the figurative sense of the idiom or proverb. Even though the meaning of the words in an idiomatic or proverbial expression seems to differ from the sense of the idiom or proverb, there is to a certain extent a relationship. It is this relationship which lexicographers can assist to explain in their definitions in order to clarify both the literal and the figurative meanings of words in Sesotho sa Leboa. This article aims to stress the importance of having specialized dictionaries which will give users detailed etymological explanations of the meaning of idiomatic and proverbial expressions as used in Sesotho sa Leboa. The etymological analysis of the meaning of these lexical items (idioms and proverbs) will provide a better understanding of these expressions and enrich dictionaries with detailed definitions. This will create a better understanding of the relationship between the literal meanings of the expressions and their real (i.e. figurative) meanings. Keywords: diachronic analysis, etymology, figurative expression, idiom, lemmatization, lexicology, metaphor, metaphoric expression, proverb, synchronic analysis, terminography.

Cognitive Linguistics (CL) and Sociocultural Theory (SCT) complement each other in L2 pedagogy (Lantolf, 2006, 2011; Masuda & Arnett, 2015). In this study, we unite teaching materials informed by cross-linguistic CL studies and SCT pedagogy – namely, concept-based language instruction (C-BLI) – to teach two Chinese-speaking English-as-a-second-language learners figurative expressions in the MORALITY domain and the concept of conceptual metaphor using several SCOBAs (Schemas for Complete Orienting Basis of Action). We provide microgenetic analysis of two case studies, focusing on each participant’s process of internalization and their interaction with SCOBAs during the pre-test, two instructional sessions, and post-test. Both students demonstrated their abilities to draw on the concept of conceptual metaphor to understand figurative speech in English from domains not limited to morality. In the end, we discuss implications on the design and implementation of SCOBAs.

This book examines how people understand utterances that are intended figuratively. Traditionally, figurative language such as metaphors and idioms has been considered derivative from more complex than ostensibly straightforward literal language. Glucksberg argues that figurative language involves the same kinds of linguistic and pragmatic operations that are used for ordinary, literal language. Glucksberg's research in this book is concerned with ordinary language: expressions that are used in daily life, including conversations about everyday matters, newspaper and magazine articles, and the media. Metaphor is the major focus of the book. Idioms, however, are also treated comprehensively, as is the theory of conceptual metaphor in the context of how people understand both conventional and novel figurative expressions. A new theory of metaphor comprehension is put forward, and evaluated with respect to competing theories in linguistics and in psychology. The central tenet of the theory is that ordinary conversational metaphors are used to create new concepts and categories. This process is spontaneous and automatic. Metaphor is special only in the sense that these catagories get their names from the best examples of the things they represent, and that these categories get their names from the best examples of those categories. Thus, the literal shark can be a metaphor for any vicious and predatory being, from unscrupulous salespeople to a murderous character in The Threepenny Opera. Because the same term, e.g.,shark, is used both for its literal referent and for the metaphorical category, as in My lawyer is a shark, we call it the dual-reference theory. The theory is then extended to two other domains: idioms and conceptual metaphors. The book presents the first comprehensive account of how people use and understand metaphors in everyday life.

The study investigates how EFL learner-translators deal with metaphors and how cognitive factors and cultural background influence their choices. An English-to-Chinese translation task consisting of 20 English sentences was given to 70 Taiwanese university students; each sentence contains a figurative expression that falls into the categories in the cognitive cultural models (Kövecses, 2005). The students’ performances on the task were rated; quantitative analyses show that the students performed significantly better on translating metaphors whose conceptual metaphors exist in both languages than on metaphors whose conceptual metaphors are exclusive to English. Additionally, twenty students were selected for post-task interviews; qualitative analyses indicate that sentence context, concerns over style and register, and translators’ personal preferences affected their choices while translating. Communicative strategies, like providing neutral meanings to avoid uncertain translation, were adopted. The results contribute to the literature on and pedagogical applications for EFL learner translators from both cognitive and cultural aspects.

The purpose of the study is to show how the insights of cognitive linguistics can be applied in teaching/learning figurative expressions and develop an invariantmodel of communicativeoriented ESP teaching process. The research goal is associated with solving the tasks of theoretical and practical plans, such as studying a conceptual metaphor from the standpoint of cognitive linguistics and the theory of communicative foreign language teaching. Three practical tasks have been fulfilled: a sample of metaphorical expressions from authentic sources has been made and analyzed, and a sequence of the learning process stages and appropriate sources of information for use as a means of studying metaphor has been determined. A complex of research methods was applied, including linguistic analysis as well as linguodidactic methods of modelling, experimental teaching and questioning surveying. As a result of the study, a model of communicative-oriented teaching / learning of conceptual metaphor within ESP process has been elaborated.

This book examines how people understand utterances that are intended figuratively. Traditionally, figurative language such as metaphors and idioms has been considered derivative from more complex than ostensibly straightforward literal language. Glucksberg argues that figurative language involves the same kinds of linguistic and pragmatic operations that are used for ordinary, literal language. Glucksberg's research in this book is concerned with ordinary language: expressions that are used in daily life, including conversations about everyday matters, newspaper and magazine articles, and the media. Metaphor is the major focus of the book. Idioms, however, are also treated comprehensively, as is the theory of conceptual metaphor in the context of how people understand both conventional and novel figurative expressions. A new theory of metaphor comprehension is put forward, and evaluated with respect to competing theories in linguistics and in psychology. The central tenet of the theory is that ordinary conversational metaphors are used to create new concepts and categories. This process is spontaneous and automatic. Metaphor is special only in the sense that these catagories get their names from the best examples of the things they represent, and that these categories get their names from the best examples of those categories. Thus, the literal "shark" can be a metaphor for any vicious and predatory being, from unscrupulous salespeople to a murderous character in The Threepenny Opera. Because the same term, e.g.,"shark," is used both for its literal referent and for the metaphorical category, as in "My lawyer is a shark," we call it the dual-reference theory. The theory is then extended to two other domains: idioms and conceptual metaphors. The book presents the first comprehensive account of how people use and understand metaphors in everyday life.

ABSTRACTTraditional Turkish love is identified with suffering. This study investigates how suffering in love is metaphorically conceptualized in Turkish via natural phenomena and disasters. Based on figurative expressions in sad love songs of Arabesque and Art music genres, the study reveals that love pain/suffering is expressed through three salient metaphors: 1) love paın/sufferıng ıs natural phenomena, 2) love paın/sufferıng ıs natural dısasters, and 3) the overarching metaphor (the suffering) lover’s body ıs a landscape (affected by weather conditions or natural disasters). It was unearthed from metaphoric expressions in lyrics that as part of a cultural scenario, natural phenomena and disasters are profiled as internalized forces culturally imagined to directly affect vital body parts to express the emotional distress or anguish of the Turkish lover. The overarching metaphor lover’s body ıs a landscape is a manifestation of conceptual integration producing a novel structure in which natural phenomena appear to occur in or to culturally selected body parts or organs. The study makes a distinction between the three metaphors above about body parts and the well-known love ıs a natural force (which affects the WHOLE body as if it were an object being swept away or blown about, etc.)

This study investigates the relationship between machine translation (MT) and human translation (HT) through the lens of word translation entropy, also known as HTra (i.e., a metric that measures how many different translations a given source text word has). We aligned different translations from multiple MT systems (three different target languages: Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish) with the same English source texts (STs) to calculate HTra for each language, and we then compared these values to additional HT data sets of the same STs and languages. We found that MT HTra correlates strongly with HT HTra within and across the languages. We also annotated the ST in terms of word class, figurative expressions, voice, and anaphora in order to examine the relationships these ST features have with HTra. For this same purpose, we normalized all HTra values (nHTra) in order to compare HTra values across all six data sets. We found that these source text features are, in general, associated with HTra in the same manner regardless of target language or the distinction between MT and HT.KeywordsTranslation entropyMachine translationHuman translationSource text features

The present study aims at narrowing the evident gap between the receptive and productive competence of idiomatic expressions of Jordanian EFL learners through the use of explicit CM-inspired instruction. 130 Jordanian EFL learners participated in the study and were separated into a control group that received no instruction in CMs and an experimental group that received a CM-based instruction. A multiple-choice test and a completion test were designed to measure the receptive and productive knowledge of students. A pre-test and post-test were conducted to measure the improvement of the idiomatic competence of students. The results of the pre-tests and the post-tests show that Jordanian EFL learners’ productive competence can be developed to match that of receptive knowledge using CM-based instruction. The study is expected to provide EFL instructors and curriculum designers with insights on how to tackle the challenges posed by these figurative expressions.