Tetrataenium paikadae (Apiaceae), a new species from the Western Ghats, India

The present communication reports an update on the distribution of three endemic tree species of the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot, namely, Atuna indica (Bedd.) Kosterm., Paracroton integrifolius (Airy Shaw) N.P.Balakr. & Chakrab. and Phaeanthus malabaricus Bedd. The discovery of these taxa in the Makutta Ghat of Kodagu District results in the extension of their northern range limits and further enriches the flora of Karnataka state by three more tree species. Within the Western Ghats, these taxa were previously recorded only from the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, while Paracroton integrifolius (Airy Shaw) N.P.Balakr. & Chakrab. has also been recorded from Sri Lanka. Nomenclature updates, detailed descriptions, conservation status and relevant notes on the habitat, phenology and distribution localization are supplied. Additionally, field photographs and scanned herbarium specimens are provided to facilitate easy identification of these taxa in the field.

The Black Microhylid Frog Melanobatrachus indicus is a rare and endangered species known only from very few specimens from the southernmost part of the Western Ghats. A good population of these species was reported for the first time from the highland montane shola forests Marayoor, Idukki district, Kerala. The present report forms the highest altitude record for the species, about 1700 m and also accounts for the most numerous populations ever recorded for the species from the Western Ghats. An updated review of the present distribution of the Black Microhylid frog is also provided.

The Rufescent Burrowing Frog, Fejervarya rufescens, is thought to have a wide distribution across the Western Ghats in Peninsular India. This locally abundant but secretive species has a short breeding period, making it a challenging subject for field studies. We sampled 16 populations of frogs morphologically similar to F. rufescens in order to understand the variation among populations found across the Western Ghats. Our study shows significant morphological and genetic differences among the sampled populations, suggesting that F. 'rufescens' is a complex of several undescribed species. Using evidence from morphology and genetics, we confirm the presence of five distinct species in this group and formally describe four as new. The new species were delineated using a phylogeny based on three mitochondrial genes (16S, COI and Cytb) and a haplotype network of a nuclear gene (Rag1). Hereafter, the distribution of F. rufescens is restricted to the state of Karnataka and adjoining regions of northern Kerala. Three new species (Fejervarya kadar sp. nov., Fejervarya manoharani sp. nov. and Fejervarya neilcoxi sp. nov.) are from regions south of Palghat gap in the state of Kerala, and one (Fejervarya cepfi sp. nov.) from the northern Western Ghats state of Maharashtra. These findings indicate that Fejervarya frogs of the Western Ghats are more diverse than currently known. Our results will also have implications on the conservation status of F. rufescens, which was previously categorized as Least Concern based on its presumed wide geographical distribution. Furthermore, in order to facilitate a better taxonomic understanding of this region's fejervaryan frogs, we divide all the known Fejarvarya species of the Western Ghats into four major groups-Fejervarya nilagirica group, Fejervarya rufescens group, Fejervarya sahyadris group and Fejervarya syhadrensis group, based on their morphological affinities.

The Western Ghats in Kerala, India, have witnessed a significant rise in landslide occurrences in recent years. More recently in 2024, catastrophic landslides in Wayanad district claimed 336 lives, with 78 people reported missing, underscoring the urgent need for accurate prediction and effective risk mitigation strategies. A reliable historical landslide database is critical to address this escalating challenge. While deep learning has been successfully employed in various studies for creating landslide inventory, with some of them being in Western Ghats itself, an automated landslide inventory is still not available for the state of Kerala in India. In this study, temporal differences from pre and post-event high-resolution satellite imagery is used to train a deep learning model for landslide segmentation. PlanetScope imagery with a 3-meter resolution, along with a publicly available landslide database made from it named High Resolution Landslide Detector Database (HR-GLDD) were utilized for this. Two variants of the U-Net model – simple multiscale U-Net and attention multiscale U-Net were trained on HR-GLDD and fine-tuned with temporal difference data using transfer learning. The efficiency of both models in landslides mapping was evaluated quantitatively using metrics and qualitatively using visual comparison of outputs. Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) techniques such as Integrated Gradients (IG) and Gradient-Weighted Class Activation Mapping (Grad-CAM), as well as feature map visualization are used to understand further about the model’s functioning. The attention multiscale U-Net model achieved best performance with a precision of 91.49% and an F1 Score of 81.69%. Visual comparison of predictions with ground truth further demonstrated the effectiveness of the attention multiscale U-Net in accurate inventory mapping. IG identified the Near-Infrared (NIR) band as the most influential input for landslide segmentation, while Grad-CAM and feature map visualization helped to reveal spatial patterns captured by the model at different stages. This study can be seen as a successful first step towards building an automated landslide inventory for the state of Kerala in India.

The genus Raorchestes is a large radiation of Old World tree frogs for which the Western Ghats in Peninsular India is the major center for origin and diversification. Extensive studies on this group during the past two decades have resolved long-standing taxonomic confusions and uncovered several new species, resulting in a four-fold increase in the number of known Raorchestes frogs from this region. Our ongoing research has revealed another five new species in the genus, formally described as Raorchestes drutaahu sp. nov., Raorchestes kakkayamensis sp. nov., Raorchestes keirasabinae sp. nov., Raorchestes sanjappai sp. nov., and Raorchestes vellikkannan sp. nov., all from the State of Kerala in southern Western Ghats. Based on new collections, we also provide insights on the taxonomic identity of three previously known taxa. Furthermore, since attempts for an up-to-date comprehensive study of this taxonomically challenging genus using multiple integrative taxonomic approaches have been lacking, here we review the systematic affinities of all known Raorchestes species and define 16 species groups based on evidence from multi-gene (2,327 bp) phylogenetic analyses, several morphological characters (including eye colouration and pattern), and acoustic parameters (temporal and spectral properties, as well as calling height). The results of our study present novel insights to facilitate a better working taxonomy for this rather speciose and morphologically conserved radiation of shrub frogs. This will further enable proper field identification, provide momentum for multi-disciplinary studies, as well as assist conservation of one of the most colourful and acoustically diverse frog groups of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot.

Hypselobarbus kurali (Red-tailed Barb) is a commercially important food fish that is endemic to the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot and is extensively harvested from rivers in the state of Kerala, India. The present study investigates the fishery, demographic characteristics, and exploitation pattern of H. kurali , in five river systems situated within the Southern Western Ghats. The monthly catches of this species from different landing centres across the rivers ranged from 52.5 (January) to 133.8 kg (July). The estimated growth parameters of H. kurali include an asymptotic length ( L ∞ ) ranging between 263.55 and 368.55 mm and growth coefficient ( K ) varying from 0.42 to 0.82 yr −1 across different rivers. The total mortality ( Z ) ranged between 0.90 yr −1 and 2.17 yr −1 while the fishing mortality ( F) was estimated between 0.41 yr −1 and 1.37 yr −1 . The fishing mortality rate observed for H. kurali in the Periyar River of 1.37 yr −1 seems to be among the highest ever documented for this species. This rate raises concerns about a potentially indiscriminate level of exploitation by local fishers in the river. The current exploitation rate ( E ), which varies from 0.44 to 0.63 yr −1 , exceeds the optimum exploitation level ( E = 0.47) in Periyar, Pampa and Muvatupuzha rivers. It indicates that unmanaged fishing may have resulted in unsustainable exploitation, making this cyprinid population in Western Ghats rivers at risk of an imminent collapse. Enforcing measures like implementing fishing closures during spawning seasons, imposing restrictions on mesh sizes and establishing non-fishing zones can contribute to sustainable fisheries management of H. kurali .

India is one of the 17 megadiverse countries with high species richness and endemism which is largely restricted to the four biodiversity hotspots. Among this, the Western Ghats with its long evolutionary history has a unique species composition with a higher incidence of threatened species and an exceptional concentration of endemic species. Several species of the endemic and threatened fauna of the region are found outside the protected areas as well. Hence, for the long-term conservation of biodiversity, it is important to map the distribution of the threatened species at a fine scale and develop strategies for conserving species outside the protected area network. Further, such an exercise will also provide crucial inputs for identifying eco-sensitive villages and involve the public in conserving species. Towards this goal, the present study collated data on regionally or globally threatened fauna of the Western Ghats from published sources. A GIS database of 512 species was created which includes 133 species of fishes, 81 species of birds, 91 species of reptiles, 79 species of amphibians, 47 species of insects, 37 species of mammals, 31 species of malacostraca, 7 species of arachnids, 4 species of gastropods,1 species of maxillopoda and 1 species of bivalves. The data was analyzed and villagelevel distribution maps for the Western Ghats states were prepared in the QGIS platform. Among the 512 species, 27 were Critically Endangered, 131 Endangered, 117 Vulnerable, and 88 Near Threatened species and the rest of the species were Least Concern, Data Deficient or Not Evaluated under IUCN threat categories but these non threatened species in the Redlist were assessed as regionally threatened and were included in this study. Our study shows that the distribution of threatened species varies across taxa and geography with a higher concentration of threatened species in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The study maps and identifies key villages for the conservation of threatened fauna in the Western Ghats and highlights the need for strategies to conserve species outside protected areas.

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary lies within 10o 15' and 10o 22' North latitude and 77o 8' and 77o 18' East longitude, in Devikulam Taluk of Idukki District, Kerala State. The Sanctuary covers an area of 90.44 km2 in the Western Ghats of India and was established in 1984. The major vegetation types of the area are dry deciduous forests, thorny scrubs, riparian forests, shola forests and grasslands. The Sanctuary is also the abode of 11 tribal settlements of which 4 are of Hill-pulayas and 7 are of Muthuvas. Muthuva settlements are Thayannan-kudi, Iruttala-kudi, Vellakkal-kudi, Pathu-kudi, Olla-vayal, Oli-kudi and Mangappara, where a total of 642 Muthuvas reside at present. Traditionally, Muthuvas were hunter-gatherers, fully dependent on the forest resources of the area. Over-exploitation of several species by them coupled with degradation of the forests of the area due to various factors, the plant diversity of the Sanctuary had drastically declined. In order to rehabilitate the biodiversity of the area by artifical regeneration of the species excessively exploited and rendered rare by the tribals, a study was undertaken to identify all the ethnobotanical species related to the traditional life of the Muthuvas. The survey had revealed that 83 species of wild plants are exploited by the tribals at present for their domestic use or for marketing. They also cultivate Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus Wats.) on a large scale in addition to few other crops for sale of their products to meet their financial needs. Among the 83 ethnobotanical species of Muthuvas in the Sanctuary, few are excessively exploited by them and based on their role in the ecosystem functioning and also social linkages with the triabls, they have been designated as key-stone species in the context of biodiversity rehabilitation. The paper deals with the traditional lifestyle of Muthuvas, ethnobotanical species, their habit, part used, tribal uses, distribution in different settlement areas and also key-stone species identified for artificial regeneration and rehabilitation of the biodiversity of the Sanctuary.

The Western Ghats region of India, being one of the most ecologically significant regions globally, it is crucial to understand the critical impacts of climate change in this region. In the present study, we have investigated the precipitation patterns across the Northern and Southern Peaks of the southernmost region of the Western Ghats (i.e., falling in the Kerala state, India), by employing precipitation indices recommended by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI), World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), and through statistical analysis of India Meteorological Department (IMD) precipitation data during 1986-2022 time periods using the non-parametric modified Mann-Kendall test and Sen's slope estimator. The results indicated that the Northern Peak region of Kerala state witnessed lower average rainfall and less variability, as compared with the Southern Peak region, with distinct differences in extreme precipitation patterns. The Northern Peak is characterized by extended dry spells, as evidenced by increased positive trends in consecutive dry days (CDD), in addition to consecutive wet days (CWD), total precipitation (PRCPTOT), and extreme rainfall events, such as PRge1 and PRge2.5days. These changes are accompanied by an upward trend in the simple daily intensity index (SDII), indicating a shift towards more intense and variable rainfall. In contrast, the Southern Peak shows significant decreases in CWD, PRCPTOT, and SDII. Despite high precipitation in the Southern Peak, there is a reduction in extreme rainfall indices such as rainfall exceeding 1mm or 2.5mm (PRge1/PRge2.5days) and heavy precipitation days (R10mm, R20mm, R30mm), reflecting a decline in rainfall intensity and frequency. The study revealed distinct precipitation patterns, where the Northern Peak faces increased intensity and variability in rainfall, while the Southern Peak shows reduced rainfall intensity and variability. Understanding regional differences in topography and microclimate is crucial for mitigating the impacts of extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, and landslides. Developing effective management strategies tailored to the specific climate challenges of vulnerable areas in each peak is essential for enhancing resilience to natural calamities in the Western Ghats, India.

The gecarcinucid freshwater crab genera, Travancoriana Bott, 1969, and Vanni Bahir & Yeo, 2007, are known thus far only from the states of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu in southern India, with their species occurring exclusively in the Western Ghats. The taxonomy of these genera is revised using a morphological approach, partly supported by a preceding molecular study, which proved that both genera are polyphyletic, while some species of Vanni s. lat. fit the generic definition of Travancoriana s. lat. In this revision, Travancoriana is restricted to its type species, T. schirnerae Bott, 1969. Five species previously known in Travancoriana are assigned to four new genera: T. charu Bahir & Yeo, 2007 (type species herein designated) and T. pollicaris (Alcock, 1909) to Ponmudiana gen. nov.; T. convexa (Roux, 1931) to Palaniana gen. nov.; T. granulata Pati & Sharma, 2013, to Anamudiana gen. nov.; and T. kuleera Bahir & Yeo, 2007, to Naduganiana gen. nov. The present revision recognises Vanni as comprising four species, including a new species: V. ashini Bahir & Yeo, 2007, V. deepta Bahir & Yeo, 2007, V. gracilis sp. nov., and V. travancorica (Henderson, 1913) (type species). Four species formerly in Vanni are transferred to four new genera: V. giri Bahir & Yeo, 2007, to Idukkiana gen. nov.; V. malabarica (Henderson, 1912) to Santanusus gen. nov.; V. nilgiriensis (Roux, 1931) to Nilgiriana gen. nov.; and V. pusilla (Roux, 1931) to Pusillosa gen. nov., with the designation of a lectotype. Nilgiriana gen. nov. also contains a new species, Nilgiriana paloti sp. nov., described herein. Identification keys are furnished for the known species of Ponmudiana gen. nov., Vanni, and Nilgiriana gen. nov., as well as for the freshwater crab genera of southern India and/or the Western Ghats. Furthermore, a checklist of freshwater crabs of southern India and/or the Western Ghats is provided, which includes their distribution. This study recognises eight new genera and two new species of freshwater crabs, contributing to a better understanding of the diversity and distribution of these important decapod crustaceans, and highlighting the need for continued research into their taxonomy.

What is the meaning of ‘participation’ within the popular notion of ‘participatory natural resource management’? An interesting entry point into this debate is Oakley and Marsden’s (1984) review of discourses and practices, in which they suggest four broad understandings: (1) informing and mobilising target groups; (2) community development; (3) organising target groups; and (4) empowering beneficiaries. They clearly favoured the last two, and criticised the first two for the underlying assumption of ‘so-called “communities” which operate in the “national” interest and which assume that everyone is, or should be, pulling in the same direction’. Instead, they suggest that it is necessary ‘to identify particular groups with conflicting interests…[showing that] different interest groups struggle for control of available assets and resources’ (1984: 9). Underprivileged groups were thus to be organised and empowered — through development projects — by outside organisations such as NGOs or specialised government agencies.

Dataset describing the soil properties (termite nests and sheetings) and nest organization of two common species in Kerala, India: Odontotermes obesus and Microcerotermes pakistanicus. Soil properties included: pH, electrical conductivity (uS cm-1), soil particle size distribution (clay, silt, sand, in %), and C (%), N (%), anion (Cl, F, NO3, SO4, in ppm) and cation (Na, K, Mg, Ca, in ppm) contents . Nest organization was measured using X-ray computed tomography and measures consisted in the measure of the total soil macroporosity (%), pore density (number mm-3), mean diameter (mm) and the probability gamma.

A new species of the hitherto monotypic gecarcinucid freshwater crab genus, Arcithelphusa Pati Sudha Devi, 2015, is described from the Western Ghats, in the Wayanad district of Kerala, India. Arcithelphusa tumpikkai sp. nov. can be easily distinguished from the only congener, A. cochleariformis Pati Sudha Devi, 2015, mainly by its relatively broader carapace, the presence of a short flagellum on the exopod of the third maxilliped, and the relatively less stout male first gonopod, with a sharply bent and relatively long terminal segment. The diagnosis for Arcithelphusa is emended to include the new species, which can be useful in distinguishing it from the closely related genus Cylindrotelphusa Alcock, 1909. The state of Kerala now has 38 species of gecarcinucid crabs, including the present new species.

Lichens are symbiotic plant-like organisms composed of a fungal partner (mycobiont) and one or more photosynthetic partners (photobiont). The fungal partner may belong to Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, or rarely Deuteromycetes, and the photobiont is often green alga or cyanobacterium. They are classified based on the fungal component along with the fungal system. The Western Ghats in India are rich in biological diversity and vital to their endemism. More than 325 globally threatened plant and animal species are found in the region. Situated along the southwest corner of India, bordered by the Lakshadweep Sea, the State of Kerala, with an area of 38,863 km2 is considered one of India’s peaceful and cleanest states. The varied topographical features, high rainfall, and geologic conditions have favored different ecosystems, from shola forests on the mountain valleys to the mangrove forests along sea coasts and estuaries.Globally 20,000 species of lichens are known. While in India, it is 2907 species representing 14.8% of the world’s flora. These are distributed under 406 genera and 79 families. Unfortunately, only fragmentary work has been done to characterize Lichens in the Western Ghats of Kerala state. Presently, the Western Ghats of Kerala account for over 800 species of lichens. This chapter discusses lichen diversity in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats, the history of lichenological investigation, the medicinal and economic importance of lichens in the region, and their conservation problems.KeywordsBiodiversityKeralaLichenized fungiWestern Ghats

The Night Frog genus Nyctibatrachus (Family Nyctibatrachidae) represents an endemic anuran lineage of the Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot, India. Until now, it included 28 recognised species, of which more than half were described recently over the last five years. Our amphibian explorations have further revealed the presence of undescribed species of Nights Frogs in the southern Western Ghats. Based on integrated molecular, morphological and bioacoustic evidence, seven new species are formally described here as Nyctibatrachus athirappillyensis sp. nov., Nyctibatrachus manalari sp. nov., Nyctibatrachus pulivijayani sp. nov., Nyctibatrachus radcliffei sp. nov., Nyctibatrachus robinmoorei sp. nov., Nyctibatrachus sabarimalai sp. nov. and Nyctibatrachus webilla sp. nov., thereby bringing the total number of valid Nyctibatrachus species to 35 and increasing the former diversity estimates by a quarter. Detailed morphological descriptions, comparisons with other members of the genus, natural history notes, and genetic relationships inferred from phylogenetic analyses of a mitochondrial dataset are presented for all the new species. Additionally, characteristics of male advertisement calls are described for four new and three previously known species. Among the new species, six are currently known to be geographically restricted to low and mid elevation regions south of Palghat gap in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and one is probably endemic to high-elevation mountain streams slightly northward of the gap in Tamil Nadu. Interestingly, four new species are also among the smallest known Indian frogs. Hence, our discovery of several new species, particularly of easily overlooked miniaturized forms, reiterates that the known amphibian diversity of the Western Ghats of India still remains underestimated.