‘I don’t speak any language’: exploring teacher language ideologies and linguistic hierarchies in a K-12 bilingual school

Author’s Introduction This Teaching and Learning Guide is intended to provide instructors of courses in Sociolinguistics some guidance in incorporating the topic of multilingualism in educational contexts into their syllabi. Although schools the world over are increasingly serving multilingual populations, awareness of this reality has not, in many cases, sifted through to public consciousness, and incorporation of this topic into the sociolinguistic curriculum is a crucial step in addressing this gap in awareness. The incidence of multilingualism in educational contexts has increased greatly in the last few decades in a number of critical ways. First, while multilingualism has long been the norm in educational settings in places such as India and some countries of Africa, widespread multilingualism has only recently begun to be seen as a factor in education in many parts of the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Second, in addition to there being more regions of the world that have multilingual populations of schoolchildren, the demographics of these populations are also changing. There are increasing numbers of middle class professionals moving to countries in which immigrants were previously overwhelmingly citizens of poor countries who came to work unskilled jobs. Third, not only have different patterns of immigration led to a broader range of regions and social groups becoming multilingual, but the ability to speak more than one language is increasingly seen as desirable for those who stay put. Bilingual education or intensive language study for the children of majority language populations is gaining popularity in Europe, the United States, and Asia. What this amounts to is that multilingualism in schools is becoming more common, and the situations in which it occurs are as varied as the languages involved. This article addresses the social issues of language ideologies and identity construction in this context. Key readings Caldas‐Coulthard, Carmnen Rosa and Amelia Maria Fernandes Alves. 2008. ‘Mongrel selves’: identity change, displacement and multi‐positioning. Identity trouble: critical discourses and contested identities , ed. by Carmen Rosa Caldas‐Coulthard and Rick Iedema, 120–42. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. This article offers an important viewpoint about the idea of the ‘third space’ created by bicultural and bilingual speakers and immigrants in particular. The authors note that people in the ‘third space’ are positioned this way, by themselves and others, because they are often not viewed as full members of their adopted culture and as émigrés are seen as no longer belonging in their culture of origin. This is a highly relevant aspect of multilingualism in all contexts. Cummins, Jim. 2001. Negotiating identities: education for empowerment in a diverse society (2nd edition). Los Angeles, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education. Chapter 1: Identities and Empowerment. The lasting message of this chapter is that educators are not trapped within discriminatory frameworks, but have the power to shape their students’ experiences. This text is based on the idea (pervasive in the social sciences) that ideologies and identities are constructed, and that this theoretical position can be applied in classroom contexts to enact change in educational practices. De Meija, Anne‐Marie. 2002. Power, prestige and bilingualism: international perspectives on elite bilingual education . Chapter 4: Teaching and learning in elite bilingual classrooms . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. De Meija provides a clear defense of the use of bilingual discourse in the classroom for both teachers and students. The position here flies in the face of the implicit position of ‘bilingualism through monolingualism’ which is often the philosophy in multilingual educational settings, that is, that languages should remain strictly separate and speakers should act like monolinguals in each language. De Meija endorses the use of two languages as a linguistic strategy for teaching and learning. Fitts, Shanan. 2006. Reconstructing the status quo: linguistic interaction in a dual‐language school. Bilingual Research Journal 29.337–65. This article addresses how language ideologies are tacit in institutional structure and how students and teachers conform to, and occasionally resist, the hegemony of normative monolingualism. For example, although the school is intended to create a bilingual student body, the children are at times asked to identify their (one) native language, and ‘bilingual’ becomes code for ‘Latino/a’. Further, bilingualism is assumed to be enacted by speaking one language at a time, thus negating the importance of mixed language speech in identity construction. Heller, Monica. 1999. Linguistic minorities and modernity: a sociolinguistic ethnography . Chapter 4: Being bilingual . New York, NY: Longman. This chapter of the ethnography of a French‐language school in Toronto, Ontario, discusses the linguistic behavior of different segments of the student population, vividly portraying the how the uses and statuses of English and different varieties of French are used by the students not just to construct their own social identities but to promote and resist specific language ideologies. Although proficiency in French is necessary to be successful, it is only a particular kind of French which gives a speaker access to cultural capital and academic success. Links http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/MBELinks.htm Tel2l stand for Teacher Education by Learning in 2 Languages, and this site includes an introduction to the basics of bilingual education as well as overviews of bilingual programs in the U.S.A., Canada, Germany, France, England, Wales, and Luxemburg. http://www.cal.org/index.html The Center for Applied Linguistics website with links to pages on English Language Learners, including but not limited to a page on two‐way immersion in the United States ( http://www.cal.org/jsp/TWI/SchoolListings.jsp ) http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/Eurydice This site is for ‘the information network about education in Europe’, and has links to various reports about education, including such things as ‘Integrating Immigrant Children Into Schools in Europe’ and ‘Content and Integrated Learning at Schools in Europe’ (this deals with teaching certain subjects in a foreign language, called Bilingualer Fachsachunterricht in German). http://www.thomasandcollier.com/index.htm This link provides access to research by Wayne Thomas and Virginia Collier on educational issues, including bilingual education, in the United States. http://www.id21.org/insights/insights‐ed05/insightsEdn5.pdf

The debates over the future of bilingual education call for conceptual frameworks that can illuminate the variety of issues that are implicated in those debates. Building from the fields of sociology of language, language policy, and language ideology, a conceptual framework is presented and employed in the analysis of the ideological debates, ocurring in Colorado and California. The analysis is concerned with the identification of different ideological positions regarding the value of bilingualism and bilingual education, the Spanish language, and the linguistic capital of working-class Latinoimmigrant families. The debates are seen as competition for value between different constituencies that take place through the manipulation of symbolic assets such as language(s), and in which Latino parents are displaced from their position as legitimate participants in their children’s education through the devaluing of their linguistic capital.The debates over the future of bilingual education call for conceptual frameworks that can illuminate the variety of issues that are implicated in those debates. Building from the fields of sociology of language, language policy, and language ideology, a conceptual framework is presented and employed in the analysis of the ideological debates, ocurring in Colorado and California. The analysis is concerned with the identification of different ideological positions regarding the value of bilingualism and bilingual education, the Spanish language, and the linguistic capital of working-class Latinoimmigrant families. The debates are seen as competition for value between different constituencies that take place through the manipulation of symbolic assets such as language(s), and in which Latino parents are displaced from their position as legitimate participants in their children’s education through the devaluing of their linguistic capital.

Currently, restrictive-language policies seem to threaten bilingual education throughout the USA. Anti-bilingual education initiatives have passed easily in California, Arizona, and Massachusetts, while one was closely defeated in Colorado, and federal education policy has re-invigorated the focus on English education for English language learners, while concomitantly obfuscating the possibility of native language maintenance and developmental bilingual education. This is the educational landscape within which bilingual education researchers, educators, and students must face the formidable challenge of preserving educational choice and bilingual education. Thus, substantive research is needed on how bilingual educators navigate this challenging ideological and policy landscape. Based on an ethnographic study of bilingual education language policy, this article takes up this challenge by focusing on how beliefs about Applied Linguistics research influence the interpretation and appropriation of federal language policy in one US school district. The results have implications for the relationship between the Applied Linguistic research community and language policy processes.

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyze the language policy and its influence on language maintenance among indigenous communities in New Zealand Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Research on language policy and its impact on language maintenance among Indigenous communities in New Zealand found that supportive policies, community involvement, and adequate resources were vital for preserving Indigenous languages. Active community participation in policy development was crucial, along with the availability of resources like bilingual education and cultural materials. Recognition of Indigenous languages as official languages alongside English also contributed to their preservation. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Language ecology theory, critical language policy theory & language rights theory may be used to anchor future studies on analyze the language policy and its influence on language maintenance among indigenous communities in New Zealand. Educational practices should emphasize the importance of bilingual and multilingual education programs that incorporate Indigenous languages alongside dominant languages in formal schooling contexts. Policy recommendations should advocate for the recognition and protection of Indigenous language rights within national and international legal frameworks.

04–576Alexander, Neville (U. of Cape Town, South Africa; Email: nalexand@humanities.uct.ac.za). The politics of language planning in post-apartheid South Africa. Language Problems and Language Planning (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), 28, 2 (2004), 113–130.04–577Bayley, Robert and Langman, Juliet (U. of Texas, USA; Email: rbayley@utsa.edu). Variation in the group and the individual: Evidence from second language acquisition. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (Berlin, Germany), 42, 4 (2004), 303–318.04–578Cruickshank, Ken (U. of Wollongong, Australia; Email: kenc@uow.edu.au). Literacy in multilingual contexts: change in teenagers' reading and writing. Language and Education (Clevedon, UK), 18, 6 (2004), 459–473.04–579Dailey, René M., Giles, Howard and Jansma, Laura L. (U. of California, Santa Barbara, USA; Email: rdailey@umail.ucsb.edu). Language attitudes in an Anglo-Hispanic context: the role of the linguistic landscape. Language and Communication (Oxford, UK), 25, 1 (2005), 27–38.04–580Davis, Kathryn and Skilton-Sylvester, Ellen (U. of Hawai'i at Manoa, USA). Looking Back, Taking Stock, Moving Forward: Investigating Gender in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 38, 3 (2004), 381–404.04–581Dewaele, Jean-Marc (U. of London, UK; Email: j.dewaele@bbk.ac.uk). Vous or tu? Native and non-native speakers of French on a sociolinguistic tightrope. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (Berlin, Germany), 42, 4 (2004), 383–402.04–582Gordon, Daryl (Temple U., USA). “I'm tired. You clean and cook.” Shifting gender identities and second language socialization. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria,VA, USA), 38, 3 (2004), 437–457.04–583Kamwangamalu, Nkonko M. (Howard U., USA; Email: nkamwangamalu@howard.edu). The language policy/language economics interface and mother-tongue education in post-apartheid South Africa. Language Problems and Language Planning (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), 28, 2 (2004), 131–146.04–584Ordonez, Claudia Lucia (U. de los Andes, Santafé de Bogota, Colombia; Email: cordonez@uniandes.edu.com). EFL and native Spanish in elite bilingual schools in Colombia: a first look at bilingual adolescent frog stories. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Clevedon, UK), 7, 5 (2004), 449–473.04–585Simpson, M. JoEllen (Formerly at U. del Valle, Cali, Colombia; Email: jsimpson@telesat.com.co). A look at early childhood writing in English and Spanish in a bilingual school in Ecuador. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Clevedon, UK), 7, 5 (2004), 432–448.04–586Skliar, Carlos and Muller Quadros, Ronice (U. Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Email: skliar@piaget.edu.ufrgs.br). Bilingual deaf education in the south of Brazil. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Clevedon, UK), 7, 5 (2004), 432–448.04–587Spezzini, Susan (U. of Alabama at Birmingham, USA; Email: spezzini@uab.edu). English immersion in Paraguay: individual and sociocultural dimensions of language learning and use. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Clevedon, UK), 7, 5 (2004), 412–431.04–588Wright, Laurence (Rhodes U., South Africa; Email: L.Wright@ru.ac.za). Language and value: towards accepting a richer linguistic ecology for South Africa. Language Problems and Language Planning (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), 28, 2 (2004), 175–197.

This work organized the research of bilingual education in indigenous languages-Spanish produced during the decade 2002-2011 in Mexico, in three areas: indigenous languages and education, bilingual teaching and bilingual education, and language policy. In the period expanded research, emerged reviews to the old traditions of descriptive linguistics. Also reveal new topics and diversification in research methodologies. The relationship between indigenous languages and education includes studies on worldview and language; the section on bilingual teaching and bilingual education, introduces pedagogical approaches and experiences in bilingual indigenous schools; the third section on language policies includes discussions on ideologies of language that influence education, and discussions about the spelling rules of indigenous languages and their relation to education.

Bilingual education & bilingualism

This article reports findings from qualitative research conducted in 17 New York City schools to better understand why many school leaders – particularly principals – have recently dismantled their school's bilingual education programs, as part of a significant citywide trend during a restrictive period in US language policy. A main finding is that principals, who are called upon to determine their school's language policy, have not received any formal preparation to do so. New York, like most states, does not require any coursework on the education of emergent bilinguals for the certification of administrators. The school leaders we interviewed who had eliminated their bilingual programs hold limited understandings of bilingualism, linguistic diversity, and bilingual education. By contrast, principals who have maintained their bilingual education programs were found to be well prepared to serve emergent bilinguals and strongly believe in the benefits of bilingual education. They also advocate for bilingual education and protect their school's programming choices in the face of English-only pressures. Based on our findings, we argue that principals are particularly crucial to the survival and success of bilingual education. What is more, we argue that all school leaders serving emergent bilinguals would benefit from specialized preparation to educate this student population.

From the lens of coloniality, monoglossic and hegemonic language ideologies and policies exist within public and private bilingual education in Colombia which oppress students’ and teachers’ diverse linguistic identities and languaging practices.This article draws on critical scholarship which recognizes the need to decolonize language education. As such, it includes a review of key literature from the fields of language ideologies, language policy, and classroom languaging practicesto consider alternative approaches to bilingual education from a heteroglossic stance, including translanguaging and critical multilingual language awareness.The literature review suggests that within the Colombian context, hegemonic and monoglossic ideologies and practices are present within international private bilingual schools and through the National Bilingual Program. In addition, anunderlying logic of coloniality exists in both public and private language education as both contexts hold foreign languages, expertise, and relationships as more valuable than their local equivalents. However, recent classroom-based research in Colombia indicates promising new heteroglossic approaches which not only acknowledgethe benefits, but also support diverse linguistic identities and practices.

This chapter focuses on constitutional and political changes that advance linguistically and culturally inclusive education in Latin America. Based on a 2013 survey of the region’s ministries of education facilitated by the Organization of American States, the chapter compares education policies focusing on pre-service and in-service teacher education, and on the teaching and learning of Indigenous languages. One finding is that nine countries in the region amended their constitutions to guarantee intercultural and bilingual education as a right of Indigenous children. Five additional countries protect this right through education legislation. In all the countries reviewed in the study, legislation has updated policies and formed new institutions to make quality education for Indigenous children a reality. This comparative study of education policy highlights the importance of expanding Indigenous languages to promote multilingualism and appreciation of the sociocultural diversity of schools and communities.

Bilingual Education in the 21st Century examines languages and bilingualism as individual and societal phenomena, presents program types, variables, and policies in bilingual education, and concludes by looking at practices, especially pedagogies and assessments. This thought-provoking work is an ideal textbook for future teachers as well as providing a fresh view of the subject for school administrators and policy makers. · Provides an overview of bilingual education theories and practices throughout the world · Extends traditional conceptions of bilingualism and bilingual education to include global and local concerns in the 21st century · Questions assumptions regarding language, bilingualism and bilingual education, and proposes a new theoretical framework and alternative views of teaching and assessment practices · Reviews international bilingual education policies, with separate chapters dedicated to US and EU language policy in education · Gives reasons why bilingual education is good for all children throughout the world, and presents cases of how this is being carried out

In multilingual Cameroon, 247 indigenous languages live side by side with English and French (the two official languages) and Cameroon Pidgin English (the main lingua franca). While the two official languages of colonial heritage dominate public life in the areas of education, administration, politics, mass media, publicity and literature, both the indigenous languages and Cameroon Pidgin English are relegated to the background. This paper is a critique of language policy in Cameroon revealing that mother tongue education in the early years of primary education remains a distant cry, as the possible introduction of an indigenous language in the school system is not only considered unwanted by educational authorities but equally combated against by parents who believe that the future of their children lies in the mastery of the official languages. This persistent disregard of indigenous languages does not only alienate the Cameroonian child culturally, but further alienates the vast majority of Cameroonians who are illiterate (in English and French) since important State business is carried out in the official languages. As regards the implementation of the policy of official language bilingualism, there is clear imbalance in the use of the two official languages as French continues to be the dominant official language while English is relegated to a second place within the State. The frustration that ensues within the Anglophone community has led in recent years to the birth of Anglophone nationalism, a situation that seems to be widening the rift between the two main components of the society (Anglophones and Francophones), thereby compromising national unity. The paper is divided into five major parts. After a brief presentation of the country, the author dwells on multilingualism and language policy since the colonial period. The third, fourth and last parts of the paper focus on the critique of language policy in Cameroon with emphasis first on the policy of official language bilingualism and bilingual education, then on the place of indigenous languages, and finally on the national language debate.

This paper examines the effectiveness of digital tools in the revitalisation of minority languages, as well as the potential outcomes associated with the successful implementation of these tools for endangered languages. The objective of this paper is to recognise how community engagement is enhanced through the utilisation of digital tools. Furthermore, it explores the long-term effects of integrating these digital resources within distinct language communities, specifically regarding improvements in the sustainability of languages and the resilience of cultural identities. The discussion also addresses the barriers that impede the successful implementation of revitalisation initiatives, including “low digital literacy” and “content limitations” in specific minority languages. Nevertheless, this work proposes strategies to overcome these challenges effectively. The study employs a qualitative methodology involving case studies and a comprehensive review of existing published works regarding language documentation and revitalisation efforts, such as scholarly articles, reports, and other relevant publications. The research findings indicate that digital tools such as Duolingo, Memrise, FLEx, and ELAN significantly support language documentation and revitalisation efforts. These tools particularly promote community engagement among the younger generation by offering a substantial volume of content pertinent to their language. In conclusion, the implementation of digital tools presents a promising strategy for the preservation and documentation of languages. These tools not only empower local communities but also enhance the effectiveness of language revitalisation efforts. Keywords: cultural identities, documentation, digital tools, minority languages, revitalisation Abbas, A., & Bidin, S. (2022). Scrutinising the framework of language planning and policy in Pakistan. Journal of Language Policy Studies, 16(2), 89–105. Abdullah, M. (2022). Examining Torwali language revitalisation through ecological planning: Strategies and outcomes. Journal of Language Conservation Studies, 15(2), 102–119. Ahmad, S. (2017). Community engagement in digital language preservation. Journal of Linguistic Studies, 12(2), 45–60. Ali, S., Khan, R., & Ahmed, M. (2021). A case study of Hindko language revitalisation efforts in northern Pakistan. Journal of South Asian Linguistics, 9(3), 156–174. Baker, C., & Jones, S. P. (1998). Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Multilingual Matters. Bashir, E. (2000). The languages of Pakistan and their endangerment: A case study of Sindhi. In Linguistic studies in South Asia (pp. 107–121). Cambridge University Press. Bashir, S. (2019). Mobile applications for Pashto language learning. Pakistani Journal of Educational Technology, 6(1), 23–34. Dashti, N. (2019). Digital storytelling in Balochi language preservation. Balochistan Journal of Social Sciences, 15(1), 67–79. Gulzar, M., & Torwali, Z. (2014). Documentation and preservation of endangered languages: The case of Torwali. Journal of South Asian Languages, 1(2), 89–105. Hawaiian Language Institute. (2020). Revitalising Hawaiian through immersion: The impact of ʻAha Pūnana Leo and Kula Kaiapuni programs. University of Hawaii Press. Huws, D. (2019). The role of Welsh-medium education in language revitalisation. Journal of Language and Education Policy, 15(2), 25–40. Jawaid, A. (2014). Benchmarking in TESOL: A Study of the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013. English Language Teaching, 7(8), 23-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n8p23 Jawaid, A., Batool, M., Arshad, W., ul Haq, M. I., Kaur, P., & Sanaullah, S. (2025). AI AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING OUTCOMES. Contemporary Journal of Social Science Review, 3(1), 927-935. https://contemporaryjournal.com/index. php/14/article/view/387 Kauanui, J. K. (2008). Aloha betrayed: Native Hawaiian resistance to American colonialism. Duke University Press. Khan, R. (2018). Technological accessibility in Pakistan’s linguistic regions. South Asian Digital Studies, 8(2), 98–112. King, J. (2001). The Māori language: Its revival and its role in Māori identity. Language in Society, 30(2), 233–252. Manan, S. A. (2017). Ecological planning towards language revitalisation: The Torwali minority language in Pakistan. South Asian Linguistics Review, 3(2), 123–145. Mansoor, S. (2010). The status and role of regional languages in higher education in Pakistan. Morrs, D. (2021). Challenges and successes in Welsh-medium education. Welsh Journal of Education Research, 22(3), 55–72. Pardesi, A. (2021). The interlinking of language policy formation and national identity development in Pakistan. Journal of Language and National Identity Studies, 12(3), 145–162. Rahman, T. (2020). The role of digital archives in preserving Pashto. Khyber Journal of Language Research, 10(3), 110–124. Seifi, M. (2015). Language policy and planning in Pakistan: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of South Asian Language Policy, 7(1), 45–62. Shackle, C. (2024, August 9). Sindhi language. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sindhi-language Shah, A. (2021). Digital initiatives for Sindhi language preservation. Sindh Cultural Review, 14(2), 55–69. Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonising methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). Zed Books. Spolsky, B. (2018). Social media and language revitalisation. Language in Society, 47(1), 45–70. Tariq, M. (2011). Language documentation and endangerment: The case of Burushaski in the Gilgit-Baltistan region. Pakistan Journal of Linguistics, 27(1), 11–23. Welsh Government. (2017). Cymraeg 2050: A million Welsh speakers. Welsh Government. Wikipedia contributors. (2023, March 19). Kalami language. Wikipedia. https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalami_language Williams, C. (2014). Welsh-medium education: Language planning and policy in Wales. Multilingual Matters. Woodbury, A. C. (2011). Language documentation. Cambridge University Press. WorldData. (n.d.). Pashtu speaking countries. WorldData. https://www.worlddata.info/languages/pashto.php Zubair, S. (2019). Funding challenges in language preservation projects. Journal of Pakistani Linguistic Heritage, 5(2), 88–99.

This systematic literature review examines the panorama of interculturality in rural contexts of bilingual education in Latin America. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in Latin America and identify key themes, challenges, and gaps in the field. The review highlights the importance of recognizing and valuing linguistic and cultural diversity, particularly in marginalized rural communities. It also discusses the lack of adequate resources and educational policies as significant challenges to promoting intercultural bilingual education in these contexts. The findings underscore the need for further research and the development of effective strategies to enhance intercultural understanding and bilingual education in Latin American rural areas.

The aim of this article is to analyse the language policies and ideologies at work in the new bilingual education programmes being developed in France within a general reform for the teaching of foreign languages. The sociolinguistic context of languages present in the education system will be presented first in order to explain the categorisation of languages into ‘foreign’, ‘regional’ and ‘origin’ (which we shall translate as ‘migrant’). It will then be explained how the first two categories allow for various didactic models (partial vs total immersion, content language integrated learning models, ‘European’ and ‘international’ classes etc.),while references to migrant languages and their speakers remain limited, ambiguous and unclear. It will be argued that while recent official texts and the new curriculum for primary schools (2002) show a first acknowledgement of linguistic and cultural diversity in France, bilingualism and bilingual education are still envisaged differently according to the social status of the languages concerned.