Human-Wildlife Coexistence in Nepal: Evolution of Relief Policies and Practices

Human-wildlife conflicts are common phenomenon throughout the world which have become significant problems. Human-wildlife conflicts bring many socio-economic and ecological consequences in buffer zone area of the protected area. This study is based on mixed research design combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Household survey, focus group discussions are used for primary data collection. After collecting data, the data are tabulated with coding and tables are constructed with percentage figures and qualitative data are analyzed inductively using descriptions through words and phrases. There are different major sources of conflicts in the people of buffer zone and the Chitwan National Park. The major conflicts are illegal extraction of park resources such as collection of firewood, fodder and timber, livestock grazing, crop raids by wild animals and loss of human life and property. The Mitigative measures used in the study areas for wildlife damage control are repellents, physical constructions and guarding. Different community development programs have influenced buffer zone people’s attitude towards the park. Conservation education and with adequate compensation against damages and regular monitoring of wild animals help to reduce human-wildlife conflicts.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) involving megafauna is a global conservation concern. In the tropical lowlands of Nepal (Terai), the megafauna populations are increasing due to successful conservation efforts, introducing the potential for greater HWC. We analyzed the spatio-temporal trend of reported HWC incidents from 2013 to 2022 in the buffer zones of Bardia and Chitwan National Parks in the Terai. Of the total 14,989 reported HWC incidents, crop raiding (n = 8,129) and livestock depredation (n = 4,611) were the most common. Elephants were responsible for 42.8% of all incidents. Total HWC incidents increased over the 10-year period, and there was a significant association between total population estimates of rhino and tiger and total HWC incidents involving those species. At the site level, this association held except for rhino HWC in Bardia. Similarly, incidents of livestock depredation driven by leopard and tiger, and crop damage incidents from elephant, rhino, and boar, increased over the study period. In contrast, property damage-exclusively by elephants-remained relatively stable in Chitwan but decreased in Bardia, possibly reflecting seasonal and transboundary movement patterns of elephants, or the effectiveness of targeted mitigation measures that have reduced elephant intrusions into settlements. Conflict hotspots-defined as the wards in the top quantile of HWC incidents-indicated priority areas for focused mitigation and remedial efforts. Habitat restoration in the buffer zones and corridors outside PAs could potentially mitigate HWC, but it might simultaneously export HWC to new areas outside the PAs. Targeted community-based mitigation measures should be implemented in the peak raiding periods, and predator-proof sheds would reduce livestock losses; both initiatives require substantial external financial support. Finally, the widespread adoption of livestock insurance that responds to spatiotemporal risk should be considered, along with funding and coordination by government and conservation organizations. Overall, the evidence suggests that successful megafauna conservation may be associated with increased HWC. Nevertheless, our findings offer practical insights to guide species-specific conflict mitigation and HWC management in tropical landscapes where megafauna populations are recovering, and conflicts are intensifying.

In sub-Saharan Africa, the management of buffer zones around protected areas does not often take into serious account the needs of resource exploitation by the local populations or the conservation needs of these areas. We described the ecological characteristics and management issues affecting the buffer zone around the Fazao-Malfakassa National Park; a 192,000-ha protected area in central-western Togo of utmost conservation importance within the Dahomey Gap region. Within the buffer zone (10 km radius, 334,800 ha), we focussed on four high conservation value areas totalling 65,594 ha (20% of the total buffer zone area). Using 2015 sentinel-2 images we analyzed land cover patterns and described existing ecological zones. We complemented these with field surveys and interviews with 300 people living in 22 villages within the buffer zone to describe the conditions affecting the resident human population. Although over 60% of the total buffer zone area is degraded, we identified four areas of high conservation value (total area = 65,594 ha). Interviewees recognized that slash-and-burn was the most common form of land use, followed by agroforestry practices. Agriculture, charcoal, and firewood production were the main drivers affecting habitats, and land conflicts were recurrent due to the rise in human population. The decline in agriculture, reported by interviewees in some sectors, was attributable to ravages of crops by elephants. Three independent diversity indices showed that, in preserved zones, a greater diversity of animals (with similar utilization frequencies) were hunted than in degraded sites (where grasscutters were the dominant hunted species). There were also significant differences between degraded and preserved zones in terms of plants used for charcoal production and for non-timber forest products. We advocate the development of community-controlled hunting areas to enhance the conservation value of the four well-preserved zones. Instead, promoting sustainable agricultural production systems in the degraded areas can help to further stabilize the agricultural front and reduce land pressure on the park.

Threatened tree species across conservation zones in a nature reserve of North-Western Vietnam

Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) is fast becoming a serious threat to the survival of many endangered species in the world. The lack of access to forest resources for the local community residing in the buffer zones of national parks has created conflict between the national parks, the people residing in these areas and wildlife. This study focused on to analyze the situation of human-wildlife interface of people living near the park. Direst field observation, questionnaire survey of households (n=88), on-site focal group discussions, and key informant interviews were used for data collection. The study revealed that Paddy was the primary crop accounting about 34% of the economic value of total production. Peoples in the study area perceived that crop depredation was the major problem caused by the wild animals. Among crops, the damage to Paddy was high. A total average damage of Paddy per year per household (HH) was 115.2 Kg. Economic value of average annual damage per year per HH accounted for NRs, 9211.4. About 70% respondents responded that the poor availability of food in the forest was the main problem. In case of measures to control HWC, most of them have applied different local technologies. Among them participatory method, noise making and scare row construction were the common. Most of the local people believed that, cases of the HWC was increasing and will increase in the future. Hence, promotion of income generating activities, alternative energy, and improved livelihood strategies can reduce the HWC indirectly through decreasing the dependency in forest resources. Conservation awareness program and people participation are other major aspects that should be considered to mitigate the human wildlife conflict.

Human-wildlife conflict is a major issue for policymakers and conservationists due to economic damage by wild animals, resulting in increasing poverty. This study assesses the wildlife-induced damage to the major food crops viz. rice, wheat, and maize. A total of 434 households from the 10 forest user groups near the Chitwan national parks and buffer zone were randomly selected and interviewed by the use of questionnaires in 2021. A total of 87.86% of rice-growing households reported damage to rice, whereas 90.32% and 87.68% of households reported damage to wheat and maize, respectively. The annual loss of 78 kg of rice per household (NRs. 1776 at prevailing market rates) was reported in the study area. The loss of wheat and maize per household was 86 and 96 kg with the worth of NRs. 2523 and 2019, respectively. The severity of wildlife-induced damage to crops was more near the borders of national parks and buffer zone. Apart from the construction and maintaining permanent fences on the border of the national parks, there should be the provision of conservation education to communities residing along the buffer zone and near the protected areas to practice sustainable agriculture and income-generating programs that are conservation-friendly.

Maintenance of eco-system diversity is often carried out by establishing national parks, wildlife reserves and other protected areas. The fourth amendment of the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act in 1992 made the provision of buffer zone for protected areas considering buffer zone, an area of 2km in the vicinity of the park could benefit from park revenue (30-50 percent) and in return the community is supposed to participate and assist in park management activities. Between 1996 and 2010 Government of Nepal demarcated buffer zones of 12 protected areas covering a total area of 5602.67 square kilometer in 83 VDCs and two Municipalities of 27 districts where benefiting human population is over 0.9 million. In the buffer zone management programme emphasis has been given on the natural resource management where need of eco-friendly land use practices and peoples participation in conservation for long term sustainability are encouraged. This paper is an attempt to outline the various activities that have been executed under buffer zone management programme of Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation with the internal resources, local communities and support from UNDP, WWF Nepal, CARE Nepal, NTNC and other various partners for the conservation and development of buffer zones in Nepal.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ttp.v11i0.11558The Third PoleVol. 11-12, 2012Page : 34-44

Geospatial analysis of alarmingly increasing human-wildlife conflicts in Jim Corbett National Park's Ramnagar buffer zone: Ecological and socioeconomic perspectives

• Expectations of financial support from neither the state/NGOs nor diaspora remittances promote more resilient rebuilding. • Expectations of local community support promote more resilient rebuilding, as does diversification of sources of support. • The positive effects of expecting local community and diversified support were observed after earthquakes, not hurricanes. • No one-size-fits-all policy exists for building back better.Support programs must be tailored to different disaster types. • Development actors can encourage resilient rebuilding by leveraging existing mutual aid systems, especially post-earthquake. Communities throughout the world face escalating risks from hurricanes, earthquakes, many of which are intensified by climate change. Global housing stocks are disproportionately vulnerable to these risks, with losses that can permanently reverse decades of development. The ideal disaster risk reduction strategy, in which homeowners “build better before” disaster strikes, has proven challenging, making efforts to “build back better” after disasters more pragmatic, though still difficult. We examine how homeowner expectations of support shape resilient rebuilding after disasters and how their actions vary after earthquakes and hurricanes in one of the most challenging post-disaster contexts, Haiti. Using novel survey data from homeowners in two comparable cities, Léogâne and Les Cayes, we analyze how variation in expectations surrounding sources of support for post-disaster rebuilding and their diversification shapes homeowners’ reconstruction decisions after the 2010 earthquake and Hurricane Matthew in 2016. We show that expectation of local community support promotes resilient rebuilding, whereas expectations of external financial support from government agencies and nongovernmental organizations, and diaspora remittances, do not. Moreover, our results indicate that diversifying support for post-disaster rebuilding across multiple sources also encourages efforts to build back better. However, these findings hold for rebuilding only after earthquakes, not hurricanes, highlighting the unique vulnerabilities of recurring hazards. Our findings challenge arguments that aid expectations create a “chilling effect” and suggest that humanitarian-stage messaging tailored to the unique dynamics of each hazard can speed resilient rebuilding and that limited assistance funds can be better invested by reinforcing existing systems of mutual aid.

Disaster reflects a multi-fold impact on vulnerable communities such as children, women, and people living with disabilities. The study identifies the multiplier impact of hazard induce disasters, Covid019 pandemic, and regular strikes into poor and marginalized communities. Tried to be unmasking the effectiveness of local support initiatives as social recovery support from the neighbor, communities, non-state actors, and the state. The paper brings out how the social support, and protection practices can scale up its cost in disaster recovery initiates in disaster-affected communities in Gandaki province, Nepal.
 An online (google) based survey form was developed, and distributed to potential frontline workers, NGO staff, INGO staff, and UN staff based on their project area. Respondents were randomly divided into two groups (local support, and external support) and asked for their supporting practices while the disaster has occurred at the local level, and responses were analyzed at the explanatory level through the regression.
 While testing the hypothesis that local social support leads to higher resilience capacity in the disaster-affected household with compare to external support, which results showed that local level support was better with comparing of external support during disaster response and recovery. Study results suggested that household, neighbor, and local community support was quick, applicable, and easier to adopt than a comparison of external supporters. Based on the study, further development intervention should be centered on the capacity to strengthen local households, neighborhoods, community-based organizations, and local states rather than expecting external support. The study paper explores the local supporting practices on reconstruction and recovery, which is the novelty approaches in local supporting engagement on speedy recovery initiatives in Nepal.

Human-wildlife conflicts and their correlates in Narok County, Kenya

Wildlife crop depredation represents a serious human-wildlife conflict around protected areas globally. It undermines farming livelihoods and local support for long-term conservation. Though studies have focused on different aspects such as the economics, spatiotemporal and vulnerability of farms to crop depredation, little attention has been given to the farmers’ evaluation of the effectiveness of the strategies used to manage crop depredation. This paper aimed to examine the strategies used to manage wildlife by smallholding farmers who are among those closest to national parks, and how they evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies around Bui National Park in Ghana. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, involving 17 farmers from Makala community living close to the park. The results indicated that farmers apply a single strategy and/or a multiple strategies, to manage crop depredation. The single strategy is generally ineffective in the long-term, but short-term and temporary successes were observed. However, farmers sought effective results by using strategies in different combinations depending on the major crop cultivated, the wildlife diversity involved, and the frequent experience of farm damage. Understanding the effectiveness of the strategies provides knowledge about how the strategies could be made effective against crop depredation to protect farms and facilitate local support for wildlife conservation. Key words: Crop depredation, wildlife species, effectiveness, human-wildlife conflict, strategies, protected areas.

The formal conservation history of Nepal is relatively shorter one. The protection and conservation of National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Conservation Areas and Buffer Zone are creating a burning debate amongst all stakeholders along with the debate of the state restructuring. The federal system of Nepal is quite different compare to other countries. All the rational designed in the face of unitary governance system needs a redefinition now. We have to create a suitable road-map for the division power among different levels of governments using the general orientation of international conservation framework. Constitutional provision should be designed in such a way that there should be little political intervention on natural resources. Mostly the National Parks and Wildlife Reserves are listed under the jurisdiction of federal government in federal countries. Environment has been a matter of concurrent power among many other federal countries. In Nepal, there is a growing consensus in favor of federal responsibility for the large infrastructures based on their inter-provincial importance, impact and extent. National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Buffer Zones and Conservation Areas should be matter of concurrent authority where the federal government makes a framework policy but works in collaboration with the provincial government and local communities when it comes of implementing it. This will be the only way where by federal government could comply with the international commitments. Similarly, provincial government can implement the conservation functions with the support of local communities, indigenous people and groups dependent on the natural resource. The framework for such mechanism should be designed through an extensive consultation with the key stakeholders during the formulation of legislation and bylaws following the promulgation of the new constitution.The full text of the article is in Nepali. DOI: 10.3126/init.v3i0.2518 The Initiation Vol.3 2009 p.161-166

Anthropogenic activities cause habitat loss for wildlife, thus increasing human-wildlife conflicts globally. This study focused on highlighting factors that need to be explored when assessing human-wildlife conflicts for managerial actions. To identify critical factors influencing co-existence between humans and wildlife and the role these factors can play in supporting conservation of flora and fauna. A structured questionnaire was developed and administered to four communities around the two divisions of Cross-River National park to collect information demographic characteristics and series of tolerance construct statements to understand tolerance towards human-wildlife conflicts. The factors influencing tolerance in human-wildlife conflicts in Cross River National Park were highlighted using factor analysis on 335 households from communities living near the park. Tolerance in human-wildlife conflicts influences conservation and management in protected areas. The identified factors were a contribution to conservation, wealth & multiple livelihood sources, Compensation & Benefits, and community resilience. Furthermore, it was also discovered that carnivore conservation requires special attention for communities to provide support for conservation. Our results suggest that even though conservation is a central concept in human-wildlife conflict, other factors such as tolerance, the occupation of locals and the benefits to be derived play a critical role in ameliorating human-wildlife conflicts. Human-wildlife conflicts cannot be totally eliminated but having a clear understanding of the factors that play a major role in determining tolerance levels is a huge step towards peaceful coexistence and hence better management of the protected area

In rural sub-Saharan Africa, proximity to protected areas and habitat fragmentation intensify human-wildlife conflicts, particularly through crop-raiding. This study examines how household socio-agricultural profiles influence the adoption of protection strategies against wildlife incursions. The study took place near mount Sangbé national park in Côte d’Ivoire and involved surveying 121 farming households from three villages through structured interviews, complemented by field observations and expert consultations. Nineteen wildlife species were identified as crop raiders, with granivores and rodents, especially the grass cutter, red-headed quelea, and patas monkey, causing significant damage to rice, cassava, and cocoa. A hierarchical classification revealed four distinct household clusters, differentiated by landholding size, education level, age structure, and proximity to the park. Binary indicators were constructed for each method to evaluate protection practices and visualized by cluster. Strategies were grouped into physical deterrents, agroecological measures, and community-based interventions. A bias-reduced multinomial logistic regression was conducted using adjusted score equations to obtain stable estimates. Results show that field guarding is the most widely used strategy, especially among educated households with smaller landholdings, while traditional hunting and trapping are more common among older, less educated households with larger farms. Passive tolerance was positively associated across all clusters, suggesting widespread reliance on non-confrontational coping mechanisms. Scarecrows and trapping methods showed low or negative adoption rates, indicating limited perceived effectiveness. These findings underscore the need to tailor mitigation strategies to household-specific capacities and spatial contexts. The study advocates for agroecological and community-based approaches to enhance resilience and sustainability in buffer zones near protected areas.