How to quantify youth cycling performance? Development of a method based on competition results.

We examined the effects of time of day on a cycling time trial with and without a prolonged warm-up, among cyclists who tended towards being high in “morningness”. Eight male cyclists (mean ± s: age = 24.9 ± 3.5 years, peak power output = 319 ± 34 W, chronotype = 39 ± 6 units) completed a 16.1-km time trial without a substantial warm-up at both 07:30 and 17:30 h. The time trial was also completed at both times of day after a 25-min warm-up at 60% of peak power. Power output, heart rate, intra-aural temperature and category ratings of perceived exertion (CR-10) were measured throughout the time trial. Post-test blood lactate concentration was also recorded. Warm-up generally improved time trial performance at both times of day (95% CI for improvement = 0 to 30 s), but mean cycling time was still significantly slower at 07:30 h than at 17:30 h after the warm-up (95% CI for difference = 33 to 66 s). Intra-aural temperature increased as the time trial progressed (P < 0.0005) and was significantly higher throughout the time trials at 17:30 h (P = 0.001), irrespective of whether the cyclists performed a warm-up or not. Blood lactate concentration after the time trial was lowest at 07:30 h without a warm-up (P = 0.02). No effects of time of day or warm-up were found for CR-10 or heart rate responses during the time trial. These results suggest that 16.1-km cycling performance is worse in the morning than in the afternoon, even with athletes who tend towards ‘morningness’, and who perform a vigorous 25-min warm-up. Diurnal variation in cycling performance is, therefore, relatively robust to some external and behavioural factors.

Isoflavones, a chemical class of phytoestrogens found in soybeans and soy products, may have biological functions similar to estradiol. After binding with ERβ or perhaps independently of estrogen receptors, isoflavones may augment vascular endothelial relaxation, contributing to improved limb blood flow. To determine if acute fermented soy extract supplementation influences 20-km time trial cycling performance and cardiac hemodynamics compared with a placebo. Subjects included 25 cyclists and triathletes (31 ± 8 yr, V˙O2peak: 55.1 ± 8.4 mL·kg·min). Each subject completed a V˙O2peak assessment, familiarization, and two 20-km time trials in randomized order after ingestion of a fermented soy extract supplement or placebo. The fermented soy extract consisted of 30 g powdered supplement in 16 fl. ounces of water. The placebo contained the same quantities of organic cocoa powder and water. Each trial consisted of 60 min of rest, 30 min at 55% Wpeak, and a self-paced 20-km time trial. Soy supplementation elicited a faster time to 20-km completion (-0.22 ± 0.51 min; -13 s), lower average HR (-5 ± 7 bpm), and significantly greater power (7 ± 3 W) and speed (0.42 ± 0.16 km·h) during the last 5 km of the time trial compared with placebo. Analysis of the results by relative fitness level (<57 vs ≥ 57 mL⋅kg⋅min) indicated that those with a higher level of fitness reaped the largest performance improvement alongside a reduced HR (-5 ± 7 bpm). Ingestion of a fermented soy extract supplement improved sprint-distance performance through improvements in both power and speed. For those with great aerobic fitness, soy supplementation may help to decrease cardiac demand alongside performance improvement.

Performance during the individual time trial and climbing events during stage races in professional road cycling often have the greatest influence on the final individual standings. However, the relationship between power-based training variables and performance in women's individual time trials during actual competition is not clear. PURPOSE: The goal of this investigation was to determine the correlation of anaerobic and aerobic power-based measures derived from training with race performances their predictive capabilities to race performance. METHODS: Power meter data from training sessions and racing during the 3 wks prior to each stage race and the competition was collected from eight international level professional female road cyclists (age = 31.1 ±3.3 yrs, mass = 56.1 ±2.8 kg) who had finished at least 4 of the 5 stage races that were part of the 2005 USCF National Racing Calendar series. The highest 1MMP (minute mean maximal power), 5MMP and 20MMP from the 3-wk period prior to each event were used to derive critical power (CP). Stepwise linear regression was conducted for each time trial with CP and 30MMP (W and W/kg) as the independent variables to determine the best predictor of performance time. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS: The overall mean CP ranged from 4.2 to 4.8 W/kg while the 30MMP ranged from 4.3 to 5.0 W/kg. Critical power (W/kg) was the best predictor overall for performance time for all five of the events analyzed in the study (Race 1: adj. R2 = 0.604, p < 0.024; Race 2: 0.764, p < 0.006; Race 3: 0.704, p < 0.023; Race 4: 0.980, p < 0.001; Race 5: 0.784, p < 0.005). The standard estimate of errors (SEE) for the prediction of performance times using CP (W/kg) were ±51, ±18, ±61, ±6, and ± 10s for mean performance times of 1028 ±82, 640 ± 36, 2614 ± 112, 986 ± 39, and 465 ± 21 s, respectively. The inclusion of 30MMP (W/kg) with CP (W/kg) marginally, though significant, improved the SEE for one uphill time trial by 7 s. CONCLUSION: Critical power (W/kg) derived from power outputs produced during training and racing prior to competition was a better predictor of the uphill and hilly terrain time trial events used in this study when compared to 30MMP (W and W/kg) and CP (W). Coaches and athletes could use CP to better prepare for similar time trial events and potentially use CP as a measurement for talent identification.

The Influence of Different Sources of Polyphenols on Sub- Maximal Cycling and Time Trial Performance The primary purpose of the study was to establish the effects of commercially available polyphenol-rich antioxidant supplements, Pycnogenol® with added bioflavonoids (PYC-B) and CherryActive (CHA), on 20 km cycling performance. Using a double-blind counterbalanced, repeated-measures design, nine male cyclists or triathletes (32.1 ± 11.2 years; maximal aerobic capacity 4.2 ± 0.7 L•min-1; maximal power output 391.7 ± 39.5 watts) consumed 200 mg of CHA, 120 mg of PYC-B, or 200 mg of placebo (PLA) capsules, 2 days before and on the day of each experimental trial. The experimental trials consisted of four 5 minute stages at 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% maximal power output (Wmax), followed by a 20 km time trial (TT). Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between trials for heart rate, respiratory exchange ratio, gross mechanical efficiency, oxygen consumption, or blood lactate, at any of the intensities completed during the initial 20 minute phase of the trial (p>0.05). Final 20 km TT times were not significantly different between trials (p=0.115), but, compared to PLA, PYC-B did significantly increase power output by 6.2% over the final 5 km of the TT (p=0.022). The study suggests that the PYC-B supplement could be beneficial towards the end of an intense bout of cycling exercise. However, as total 20 km time was not significantly different between trials the doses used are unlikely to benefit 20 km cycling time trial performance.

In order to determine an optimal starting technique, the first four-min of two 20 km time trials (TT) were manipulated. Thirteen competitive, male cyclists (22.7 +/- 0.8 yr, 180.6 +/- 2.2 cm; 77.1 +/- 2.8kg; 8.3+/-0.7% fat; 4.9+/-0.21 x min(-1), 71.7+/-1.4% of VO2max) performed three, 20 km TTs. The pace of the first TT was self-selected (SS). Min 1-4 of the subsequent, randomly assigned TTs were performed 15% below and 15% above the average power output (PO) of min 1-4 of the SS TT, subjects then completed the TT as quickly as possible. As a percent change from the SS TT, the 15% below TT was (p < 0.05) faster than 15% above TT. Lactic acid values at min 4 of the 15% below TT (4.87+/-0.73mM x l(-1)) were lower (p<0.05) than both SS TT (9.78+/-1.05mM x l(-1)) and 15% above TT (11.54+/-1.00mM x l(-1)). Following min 4 to the finish there were no differences in VE, HR, or RPE. However, VO2, VO2 with respect to lactic acid threshold, and PO were all elevated in the 15% below TT as compared to both SS TT and 15% above TT. The initially high LA resulting from the starting strategies of the SS TT and 15% above TT may have reduced the work capacity of active muscle.

The normal circadian rhythm in exercise performance may be altered by the habitual timing of training. We have investigated if morning time trial performance is affected by the time at which moderate exercise is performed on the previous day. Eight male cyclists undertook two separate exercise sessions of sub-maximal cycle ergometry (60% V.O2peak for 30 min) at 07:00 h and 12:00 h the day before a 16.1-km time trial at 07:00 h. Heart rate, power output, ratings of perceived exertion, and rectal temperature were measured at rest and every 5 min in the pre-time trial exercises, and every 1.61 km during the time trial. Blood samples were taken at rest and immediately after the time trial for the measurement of lactate concentration. The time trial performed the day after the 07:00 h sub-maximal exercise was completed in 1672+/-135 s, compared to 1706+/-159 s for the time trial performed the day after the noon pre-time trial exercise (p=0.027). The time trial after exercise the previous morning was associated with higher work-rates (p=0.031), a higher net lactate accumulation after the time trial (p=0.018), and a trend for higher heart rates (p=0.093) compared to the time trial after exercise the previous noon. These findings suggest that cycling performance in an early morning time trial is improved if an athlete participates in early-morning rather than noontime moderate exercise the day before. This finding cannot be attributed to the physiological responses to the exercise on the pre-time trial day or to environmental factors. It is suggested that it might partly reflect an advantage gained by performing exercise in the day(s) immediately beforehand at the same time as the competition.

Effect of cold water immersion on repeated 1-km cycling performance in the heat

Introduction: New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract (NZBC) is a popular ergogenic aid used to improve endurance performance. The aim of this research was to determine the effects of a single bolus of NZBC on 10-km time trial (TT) cycling performance in normobaric hypoxia. Methods: A double-blind, crossover design study was conducted with trained cyclists. The effects of acute NZBC (900 mg) were compared with a placebo in normobaric hypoxia (NH) (FiO2 = 15.5%). Testing comprised of three laboratory-based visits for (1) familiarisation (and screening of TT performance before entry into study), (2) placebo and (3) NZBC, whereby a 10-km cycling TT was completed one hour after consumption. After completion of the TT blood lactate was assessed at four time-points in the 10 minutes following. Throughout the TT, power output (PO), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Results: NZBC had no effect on TT cycling performance in NH compared to a placebo (1078.4 s [1009.4, 1147.4] and 1071.0 s [1006.4, 1137.5] respectively, p=0.31; d=-0.31). Additionally, no difference was observed for mean power output (p=0.20; d=0.39), HR (p=0.76; d=0.09) or at 1-km intervals for performance time (p=0.80), PO (p=0.77) or RPE (p=0.41). Post exercise blood lactate recovery did not differ between placebo and NZBC (p=0.42). Conclusion: Acute intake of NZBC has no effect on cycling performance or blood lactate recovery in simulated altitude.

Event Abstract Back to Event YOU CAN DO IT! EFFECTS OF AUDIENCE SUPPORT AND ANXIETY ON PHYSICAL AND PERCEPTUAL-COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE IN CYCLISTS Bethany Bradhurst1*, James Donnelly1 and Christopher Stevens1 1 Southern Cross University, Psychology, School of Health and Human Sciences, Australia Aim: The presence of a supportive audience is reported to be a contributing factor to optimal physical performance. Research also indicates that supportive audiences can induce anxiety, causing people to perform below their actual physical abilities. Currently, little is known about the effects of audience support on perceptual-cognitive performance during exercise. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of audience support and anxiety on physical and perceptual-cognitive performance during cycling. Method: Forty one participants were allocated to either a live audience (n=12), recorded audience (n=15), or no audience (n=14) group. Participants completed the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R) and an abbreviated version of the Physical Activity and Sport Anxiety Scale (PASAS) before completing a 10-min warm up protocol on a Wattbike cycle ergometer. Participants then performed a 10-min time trial (TT) for the highest mean power. During the TT, participants performed a combined Flanker/Go-No Go task that was presented on a monitor positioned in front of the bike. Results: No significant differences were found between groups on cycling performance (F(2,36) = 1.04, p = .364, ηp² = .055), cognitive task reaction time (F(2,37) = .30, p = .741, ηp² = .016), or accuracy (F(2,36) = 1.58, p = .220, ηp² = .081). Conclusions: Cycling and in-task cognitive performance are neither enhanced nor debilitated by the presence of a live or recorded supportive audience. Keywords: Anxiety, Cycling, power output, audiences, Perceptual-cognitive Conference: Southern Cross University 13th Annual Honours Psychology Research Conference, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia, 7 Oct - 7 Oct, 2016. Presentation Type: Research Topic: Psychology Citation: Bradhurst B, Donnelly J and Stevens C (2016). YOU CAN DO IT! EFFECTS OF AUDIENCE SUPPORT AND ANXIETY ON PHYSICAL AND PERCEPTUAL-COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE IN CYCLISTS. Front. Public Health. Conference Abstract: Southern Cross University 13th Annual Honours Psychology Research Conference. doi: 10.3389/conf.FPUBH.2016.02.00013 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 29 Sep 2016; Published Online: 30 Sep 2016. * Correspondence: Ms. Bethany Bradhurst, Southern Cross University, Psychology, School of Health and Human Sciences, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia, b.bradhurst.10@student.scu.edu.au Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Bethany Bradhurst James Donnelly Christopher Stevens Google Bethany Bradhurst James Donnelly Christopher Stevens Google Scholar Bethany Bradhurst James Donnelly Christopher Stevens PubMed Bethany Bradhurst James Donnelly Christopher Stevens Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Relevance. Coaches and athletes across a variety of sports commonly perform abdominal exercises to promote core strength and endurance. However, the precise influence of abdominal strength and endurance on cycling performance remains elusive. Purpose. Determine whether abdominal fatigue affects anaerobic sprint and aerobic time- trial (TT) cycling performance. Methods. Twenty-three untrained young adults (age: 19,2 ± 1,0 years, height: 170,4 ± 7,5 cm, and weight: 74,5 ± 14,1 kg) participated in this study. Twelve of the participants completed two Wingate anaerobic power tests on a Monark 834 E ergometer set at 7,5 % of body mass and the remaining 11 participants completed two 3,2 km cycling TTs on an Expresso S3U virtual reality bike; tests were separated by 96 hours. All participants performed abdominal crunches to fatigue prior to the second test. Dependent t-tests were used to assess differences between the cycling trials for the two groups. Results. Abdominal muscle fatigue decreased mean anaerobic power (Pre: 486,75 vs. Post: 408,83 Watts (W, p &lt; 0,001), increased the rate of fatigue (Pre: 42,01 vs. Post: 50,32 %, p = 0,004), and tended to decrease peak anaerobic power (Pre: 643,17 vs. Post: 607,27 W, p = 0,088). However, abdominal muscle fatigue did not affect TT mean power (Pre: 228,18 vs. Post: 220,09 W, p = 0,127) or TT performance (Pre: 382,7 vs. Post: 388,0 seconds, p = 0,222). Conclusion. Abdominal fatigue negatively affects anaerobic cycling performance in untrained young adults. Future studies should evaluate the impact of abdominal fatigue on cycling performance in trained cyclists.

Differences in cycling performance have been observed in cyclists with similar VO2max values yet different lactate thresholds. The purpose of the current study was to compare a simulated 16.1-km cycling time trial, VO2max and related factors in cyclists who significantly varied in ventilatory threshold. From an original group of 18 category III or IV cyclists, two groups of 6 cyclists were formed based on ventilatory threshold values as high (77 +/- 4% of VO2max-Group H) or low (68 +/- 2.8% - Group L). VO2max and a 16.1-km time trial were completed on a Velodyne trainer. No significant difference (p > or = 0.05) was noted between groups in VO2max (Group H 4.00 +/- 0.281.min-1, Group L 4.15 +/- 0.671.min-1), however significant differences (p < or = 0.05) were found in ventilatory threshold and time trial scores. Group H completed the time trial in 16.29 +/- 2.08 min while Group L averaged 20.93 +/- 3.03 min. Group H completed the time trial 28% more quickly by working at a significantly higher percentage of VO2max, a higher power output and a faster pedal rate than Group L. From a battery of physiologic and body composition parameters, the ventilatory threshold expressed as VO2 (l.min-1) was the best predictor (r = -0.76) of time trial performance in the 12 cyclists. The findings of this study indicate that the ventilatory threshold was superior to VO2max in discerning performance differences in a 16.1-km cycling time trial, and was the best predictor of the simulated time trial performance.

This study examined whey protein isolate supplementation combined with endurance training on cycling performance, aerobic fitness and immune cell responses. Eighteen male cyclists were randomly assigned to either placebo (PLA) or whey protein supplementation (WS; 1.0 g·kg body mass−1·d−1 in addition to their dietary intake). Both groups completed the identical endurance training program, 4 days per week for 6 weeks. Blood samples were obtained at rest and after 5 and 60 min of recovery from a simulated 40 km cycling time trial (TT) and were repeated after training. Baseline dietary intake of protein prior to supplementation was 1.52 ± 0.45 and 1.46 ± 0.44 g·kg body mass−1·d−1 for the WS and PLA groups, respectively. There were similar improvements in TT performance (WS: 71.47 ± 12.17 to 64.38 ± 8.09 min; PLA: 72.33 ± 12.79 to 61.13 ± 8.97 min), and peak oxygen uptake (WS: 52.3 ± 6.1 to 56.1 ± 5.4 mL·kg−1·min−1; PLA: 50.0 ± 7.1 to 54.9 ± 5.1 mL·kg−1·min−1) after training in both groups. White blood cells (WBC) and neutrophil counts were elevated 5 min after the TT and further increased after 60 min (P < 0.05). The exercise-induced increase in WBC and neutrophil counts at 5 and 60 min after the TT were attenuated after training compared to before training (P < 0.05). Lymphocytes increased 5 min after the TT and decreased below rest after 60 min of recovery (P < 0.05). Following training lymphocytes were lower after 60 min of recovery compared to before training. There was no change in natural killer cell activity with exercise, training or between groups. It was concluded that whey protein isolate supplementation while endurance training did not differentially change cycling performance or the immune response at rest or after exercise. However, endurance training did alter performance, aerobic fitness and some post exercise immune cell counts.

Preexercise caffeine intake has proven to exert ergogenic effects on cycling performance. However, whether these benefits are also observed under fatigue conditions remains largely unexplored. We aimed to assess the effect of caffeine ingested during prolonged cycling on subsequent time-trial performance in trained cyclists. The study followed a triple-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled cross-over design. Eleven well-trained junior cyclists (17 ± 1years) performed a field-based 8-min time trial under "fresh" conditions (i.e.,after their usual warm-up) or after two work-matched steady-state cycling sessions (total energy expenditure∼20kJ/kg and ∼100min duration). During the latter sessions, participants consumed caffeine (3mg/kg) or a placebo ∼60min before the time trial. We assessed power output, heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion during the time trial and mood state (Brunel Mood Scale) before and after each session. No significant condition effect was found for the mean power output attained during the time trial (365 ± 25, 369 ± 31, and 364 32W for "fresh," caffeine, and placebo condition, respectively; p = .669). Similar results were found for the mean heart rate (p = .100) and rating of perceived exertion (p = 1.000) during the time trial and for the different mood domains (all p > .1). Caffeine intake during prolonged exercise seems to exert no ergogenic effects on subsequent time-trial performance in junior cyclists. Future studies should determine whether significant effects can be found with larger caffeine doses or after greater fatigue levels.

The present study sought to create a scaling-derived cycle ergometer protocol (SDP) that was derived theoretically and would correlate highly with actual uphill time-trial (TT) cycling performance. Local competitive cyclists each completed the SDP (an incremental test to exhaustion) using their own bicycle mounted on a stationary trainer, together with either a short (6.2 km, 2.9% grade; n = 8 men and 5 women) or long-course (12.5 km, 2.7% grade; n = 8 men) uphill TT. Maximal power output (Wmax) and power at the ventilatory threshold (WVT) were determined from the SDP results, as well as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), using standard indirect calorimetry procedures. Actual TT speed correlated very highly with both SDP completion time (r = 0.97-0.98) and relative Wmax (watts per kilogram; r = 0.92-0.97) for both uphill TT races. Correlations between TT speed and more demanding measurements (VO2max, WVT) (VO2max, WVT) were generally lower and more variable (r = 0.54-0.97). These results would indicate that two non-laboratory dependent measurements (SDP completion time and relative Wmax) derived from the SDP are valid markers for predicting actual uphill TT performance. This protocol may be useful to cycling coaches and athletes in identifying talented cyclists or for tracking changes in cycling performance outside of the sports science laboratory environment.

Endurance cycling performance is determined by maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), maximal metabolic steady state (MMSS), non-oxidative energy contribution (i.e., anaerobic capacity and anaerobic power) and cycling efficiency and power related to VO2max (pVO2max). Strength training can improve these variables. However, is yet to be clarified the effects of heavy strength training (≥ 80% of one repetition maximum). The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to analyse heavy strength training effects on physiological determinants of endurance cyclists' performance. A systematic search was carried out in PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus including articles indexed up to February 2025. Following the PICOS criteria: Population, endurance cyclists aged ≥ 18 years or older, without restriction of sex or performance level; Intervention, heavy strength training (≥ 3 weeks); Comparator, group that performed cycling endurance training without receiving heavy strength training; Outcome, physiological determinants of endurance cycling (i.e., VO2max, pVO2max, MMSS, cycling efficiency, anaerobic capacity, and anaerobic power) and/or cycling performance (i.e., time to exhaustion and time trial [combined for analyses]), measured before and after the intervention and; Study design, randomised and non-randomised controlled studies. Risk of bias in studies was assessed (PEDro), and certainty of evidence at the outcome level (GRADE). Random-effects meta-analyses (for VO2max, pVO2max, MMSS, anaerobic capacity, anaerobic power and cycling performance), three-level random-effects meta-analyses (for cycling efficiency) and moderator analyses (i.e., participant and intervention characteristics) were conducted. Significance was set as p ≤ 0.05. Included studies (n = 17) comprised 262 participants (60 female) with a mean initial VO2max level of 61.25 ml/kg/min, with interventions lasting between 5 and 25 weeks, with 1-3 sessions per week. Compared to controls, heavy strength training showed a significant effect on cycling efficiency (effect size [ES] = 0.353, p = 0.012, LRTlevel2; level3 = 1), anaerobic power (ES = 0.560, p = 0.024, I2 = 29.100) and cycling performance (ES = 0.463, p = 0.016, I2 < 0.001), with no significant effect on VO2max, pVO2max, MMSS, and anaerobic capacity (all p ≥ 0.263, I2 < 0.001). No significant moderating effect was found for participant characteristics (i.e., sex, body mass, height, performance level, and strength training experience) or intervention characteristics (i.e., duration, training frequency, total sessions) (all p ≥ 0.170). Results presented low certainty of evidence. Heavy strength training can improve cycling performance (i.e., time to exhaustion; time trial) in endurance cyclist. This improvement may be mainly due to an improvement in cycling efficiency and anaerobic power. These results occur without changes in VO2max, pVO2max, MMSS or anaerobic capacity. Nonetheless, the low certainty of evidence precludes robust recommendations regarding optimal implementation of heavy strength training. The original protocol was registered ( https://osf.io/75xt4 ) at the Open Science Framework.