How Jailed Mothers Envision Future Motherhood in the Context of State Intrusion: Fawn, Flight, or Fight

The modern society has posed several threats to the public. Public security is declining with increasing anti-social behaviour. Cases of rape and terrorist attacks have become increasingly common and there is a strong demand for a security system to control such modalities. Anti-social behaviour is a key issue of public concern. Public perceptions, however, have been improving recently. The vital response to physical and emotional danger is called fight or flight response. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger. Predicting the flight and fight response is an important aspect to identify possible areas susceptible to such events and provide emergency assistance to the victims involved. This study analyses various physiological changes associated with fight or flight response and proposes an approach to predict measures that determines whether an individual is under fear caused due the perceived threat. The proposed approach uses feed forward neural networks with back propagation algorithm. With the physiological changes such as blood pressure, heart rate and respiratory rate as inputs, the optimal configuration of neural network was configured and the proposed system is able to predict the measure of fight or flight response with minimal error. By monitoring and identifying the fear measure it is possible to prevent or reduce the damage to the society by activities such as rape and terrorist attacks.

Pregnancy constitutes a major life event that confronts women with unique physical, social, economic and psychological adjustments. Epidemiological evidence suggests that the prevalence and severity of most common mental health disorders (such as depressive and anxiety disorders) during pregnancy are not different from those in the population of non-pregnant women. However, the mental health state of pregnant women has received considerable clinical and scientific attention because of its suggested influence on the pregnancy outcome, the baby, and the future child. There is emerging evidence that experiencing antenatal distress may lead to suboptimal birth, adverse birth outcome, impaired bonding with the newborn, and postnatal depression. However, little is known about the mechanisms of such relationships, and about the nature of experiencing antenatal distress. This program of work is concerned with investigating the nature of pregnancy distress. The aims of this thesis are two-fold: to explore the experiences of antenatal distress in the Australian and New Zealand context; and to examine the implications of such experiences both for the mother herself and her baby. Using a mixed-method approach within a critical realist framework, this thesis consists of a comprehensive review of the existing literature, a longitudinal psychosocial survey, and in-depth qualitative interviews. This thesis begins with an outline of the research problem and sets the scene by providing the theoretical and methodological assumptions that underlie the design and the conduct of this thesis. In introducing this work, I argue that it is important to draw from a mixed-methodology scholarship grounded in feminism and critical realism to ensure a multi-faceted understanding of such complex phenomena as pregnancy and distress. I then position my research within a background of the existing literature, and pinpoint the gaps which this thesis aims to address. Starting with an epidemiological systematic review, I explore the link between antenatal distress and preterm birth, followed by a meta-synthesis of the qualitative literature that has examined the experience of antenatal distress. First, I suggest that direct causal relationships between antenatal distress and adverse birth outcomes cannot be established in a conclusive way, and secondly I argue that such assumptions can be problematic for women as the experiences of antenatal distress involve a complex journey. I then suggest that pregnancy distress entails a process similar to that of grief and loss as a result of women’s inability to situate their experience within the good and perfect mother discourse. The empirical section of this thesis draws on data I collected both via an online survey and through interviews and is presented in three consecutive studies. The online survey, which was completed by over 290 eligible pregnant women from Australia and New Zealand, consisted of various psychosocial questionnaires administered at three time points (twice during pregnancy and once after birth). This longitudinal data formed the basis for the first empirical study which explored the psychosocial predictors of antenatal distress. In this study I conclude that it is a woman’s overall sense of coherence that predetermines her distress during pregnancy. In order to advance the understanding of the meanings that women ascribed to their experience, and how these affected their ‘at odds’ perceptions of motherhood, I then present the findings from a qualitative study with 18 Australian women who reported pregnancy distress. Together, these studies point to the need to develop a more general framework for understanding antenatal distress allowing for factors such as global sense of fitting into the world, social support and relationships with others, embodied experiences, and cultural meanings around good mothering. The third and final empirical study re-examines the relationship between psychological distress during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes, suggesting that maternal antenatal distress is not directly linked with adverse birth. This concluding work provides a reassuring message for women who feel emotionally vulnerable during their pregnancy that, despite their distress, they can still achieve an unproblematic birth. The empirical section suggests that there is a broad and contextualized framework within which pregnancy distress needs to be understood, involving both personal characteristics, past experiences, medical predispositions and factors, related to the intersectionality of social, economic and political processes. In closing, I draw together the methodological, theoretical and practical findings of this thesis. I highlight the implications of the way antenatal distress has been understood, theorized and managed in view of medicalization of mental health, pregnancy, stigma, and the cultural imperatives around good mothering. Together the findings of this thesis contribute to deeper understanding of both the multiplicity and the uniqueness of the experience of pregnancy distress; a phenomenon which involves series of individual, biological, psychological, and relational aspects, all occurring in a specific cultural context. This thesis presents important new directions about the ways antenatal distress can be understood, and approaches towards a well-informed and meaningful provision of care.

Effect of zidovudine on perinatal HIV-1 transmission and maternal viral load

Being a good mother is the highest calling for many women. However, the demands of being a “good mother” can be stressful, especially during pregnancy and the first 2 years postpartum. For many low-income mothers from marginalized groups facing multiple responsibilities with limited resources, the stress of new mothering can lead to postpartum depression (PPD). Although PPD affects roughly 12% of all white mothers, at least 3 times as many mothers of color (38%) have been found to experience PPD. In this study, 30 low-income mothers of color with histories of PPD were interviewed about how they viewed being a good mother while living with PPD. Their views of “good mother” emerged during the interviews, which uncovered four major themes: being strong mothers, juggling responsibilities, being self-sustaining, and taking care of self. Using these themes and drawing on research on mothering informed by feminist perspectives, this article examines how the mothers strive to be good mothers while coping with PPD. Social workers working with new mothers of color who have PPD can benefit from understanding these mothers’ experiences with PPD while striving to achieve well-being for themselves and for their children.

In this piece, I reflect on the current model of motherhood that prevails in Western countries, often termed 'intensive mothering'. I will briefly trace the history of this approach, focusing in particular on how theory from developmental psychology has, to some extent, functioned to reinforce it by foregrounding the mother-child dyad and emphasizing the importance of maternal practices for children's developmental outcomes. I will then consider the particular implications of this cultural approach to motherhood for women's experiences of motherhood and maternal wellbeing. Finally, I reiterate that we need to continue to challenge this western-centric model of motherhood, which risks both isolating and overburdening women, by highlighting the ways in which both women and children benefit from wider social support systems, yet also by making it permissible for women to access social support without compromising a 'good mother' identity. This article is part of the theme issue 'Multidisciplinary perspectives on social support and maternal-child health'.

Breastfeeding initiation and duration are decreased in adolescent mothers compared to older mothers. A prospective descriptive cohort design was used to explore personal, social, cultural, and infant factors that explain and predict breastfeeding initiation and maintenance at 4 weeks postpartum. Adolescent mothers (N = 120) were recruited at prenatal clinics in Thailand. Data were collected at enrollment, during birth hospitalization (N = 102), and at 4 weeks postpartum (N = 96). Findings revealed breastfeeding attitudes, social support, and cultural beliefs about "being a good mother" were positively correlated with breastfeeding initiation. Furthermore, breastfeeding attitudes and social support were significant positive predictors of exclusive breastfeeding (both p ≥ .01) continuation through 4 weeks, whereas infant temperament was a significant negative predictor (p ≥ .04). Maternal competence at 4 weeks postpartum was also positively correlated with exclusive breastfeeding continuation.

This thesis explores the impact of hepatitis C on women’s childbearing decisions and experiences of motherhood. A partial grounded theory approach was used, in which 34 women living with hepatitis C participated in semi-structured interviews to determine the direct and indirect effects of hepatitis C on their own personal decisions regarding childbearing and to describe their lived experiences of motherhood. The qualitative interview data were analysed thematically, in which common themes were identified and explored. Three key areas are explored: women’s social experience of hepatitis C; hepatitis C and childbearing decisions; and the meaning of motherhood for women with hepatitis C. The interviews revealed that living with hepatitis C had direct effects on the childbearing decisions of women. The direct effects of the virus which impacted on women’s childbearing decisions included poor physical and emotional hepatitis C related health, the perceived risk of vertical transmission of hepatitis C, concerns their future hepatitis C related health might impact upon their mothering abilities, and childbearing can conflict with treatment for hepatitis C. However, of greater importance to these women, appeared to be the indirect effects of living with a virus which is so highly stigmatised within our society. In particular, hepatitis C is closely associated with injecting drug use, which means these women are often assumed to possess the stereotypical characteristics associated with injecting drug users. As a result, they experience widespread medical discrimination and social rejection. Hepatitis C also impacts indirectly upon a wide range of factors that most women in contemporary society take into consideration in their childbearing decisions, for example, available social support, financial security and age. The experiences reported by these women are discussed in terms of their concordance or discord with prevailing theories of deviance, stigma and the social construction of motherhood. The interview data, considered in light of such theories reveal that possibly the greatest impact that hepatitis C can have upon women is to prevent them from achieving a legitimate adult female status through childbearing and becoming a ‘good mother’. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of public health and social policy.

Despite the known health benefits of sport, recent studies showed that parenthood is related to decreased sport participation. Changes in sport behaviour after becoming a parent have been explained by gender or with the rational resource perspective of limited time and energy. However, the latter is mostly theoretical, since empirical insights on resource mechanisms are scarce. We want to improve and go beyond these explanations by investigating them empirically and by examining sport socialisation during the formative years as an alternative explanation. Consequently, our main objective is to explain changes in sport participation after becoming a parent with gender, limited resources and socialisation with sport. To this end, we employ representative Dutch survey data of new parents (n = 594), containing detailed information on sport careers and sport socialisation, as well as babysitter availability, partner support and physical discomfort after childbirth. The results of the logistic regression analyses show that, besides gender and resource mechanisms, sport socialisation and social support seem to have a great impact on sport behaviour when people become parents. That is, men are more likely to continue sport participation, as well as people with more resources (physical, temporal and social) and more socialisation with sport during the formative years. So including sport socialisation and social support seems necessary to better explain and prevent sport dropout during major life transitions, like becoming a parent.

Understanding parenting responsibilities as a challenge to mental healthcare access for mothers with a mental illness in Tyrol, Austria

Breastfeeding experiences and perspectives among women with postnatal depression: A qualitative evidence synthesis

This study aims to understand how a diverse group of mothers with limited incomes approach managing their emotions. Participating mothers were predominantly women of color. Previous research suggested that, on average, inadequate resources negatively shape parenting practices and subsequent child outcomes. The family stress model linked limited resources with increased stress in parents, a mental state that may undermine parenting efforts. However, this does not consider mothers' work to manage their own emotions, including feelings of stress, which prior research has found could potentially promote their own well-being and positive engagement with children. The present study uses data from 26 of 71 semi-structured interviews from the Baby's First Years: Mother's Voices study. The researchers used thematic analysis to analyze mothers' narratives of their emotion management efforts and the mothers' values guiding such efforts. Mothers' approaches to managing their emotions were primarily shaped by their sense of what it meant to be a good mother, but these ideas about good mothering manifested differently in practice. Some mothers sought to repress emotions while parenting, others to separate from children during emotion management efforts, and some connected with children to manage mothers' own emotions. The stress of limited financial resources does not automatically translate into mothers' parenting. Mothers with limited incomes hold their own ideas about good mothering that are related to how resource limitations influence their parenting efforts. Understanding the motivations of mothers with limited incomes for managing their own emotions can provide insights for practitioners and policymakers hoping to support mothers' emotion management efforts.

As the rates of suicide in America continue to rise, suicide recently has been declared to be a national public health concern. The crisis intervention model, which has dominated the treatment of suicidal individuals in America since the 1950s, is currently believed to be the most effective model for suicide intervention. This study examined this belief by taking a more complex look at professionals' responses to suicidal clients both by investigating the existence of different ways in which professionals interpret the crisis intervention model. In one interpretation (the fight response), the professional takes power and agency away from the client and does what is perceived to be best for the client. An alternate interpretation, the ideal response, allows for a respectful engagement with the client. Professionals also can act contrary to the model (i.e., the flight response). In addition, based on the humanistic notion that clients are the experts of their own experience and that their voices are...

This study investigates the “tend-and-befriend” hypothesis proposed in 2000 by Taylor and colleagues, which posits that women utilize an alternative stress response to fight-or-flight, ensuring the survival of themselves and their offspring (tend) through the formation of groups (befriend). In contrast, we propose that, while sexes may differ in the use of tend-and-befriend behaviors, attachment style is a more robust predictor of these behaviors. The relationships among sex, adult attachment anxiety and avoidance, and stress responses were examined in 237 young adults. Participants completed the Experiences in Close Relationships—Revised and the Tend-and-Befriend Questionnaire. Results suggest that women preferred tend/befriend and flight responses over men, while men engaged in more fight responses than women. However, importantly, women and men both endorsed being most likely to engage in tend/befriend behaviors during stress than other responses. Attachment style was an independent and robust predictor of all stress responses, with anxious attachment predicting fight and flight behaviors and increased tend/befriend behavior, and avoidant attachment predicting decreased tend/befriend behavior. One interaction was also identified: Women who were more avoidantly attached were as likely as men to engage in fight behaviors, while less avoidant women reported the lowest fight response. Our findings suggest that while sex differences in self-reported tend-and-befriend behaviors may exist, exploration within sexes (an important oversight of previous research) may indicate different patterns of results. We found evidence of strong effects of attachment style on all forms of stress response, even after accounting for sex, indicating the importance of attachment behavior in stress responsivity.

Linking behaviour and climate change in intertidal ectotherms: insights from littorinid snails

Very early in childhood, relational trauma can lead to affect dysregulation in two directions: while intense fear determines the dysregulation of the brain system responsible for flight, uncontrolled aggression means the dysregulation of the brain centre responsible for fight. Both systems send the message of dysregulation in the autonomic nervous system. In both cases, there is a dysregulation of sympathetic arousal that exceeds the individual’s ability to cope with stress in a functional and effective manner. In other words, the flight response is triggered by immense fear, and the fight response is caused by intense anger and rage, which is functional in a normal response to trauma, while in the case of a dysregulated psycho-organic system it indicates a disorder that can have long-term consequences. These disorders can occur at a very early stage, in children who are at the time exposed to severe stress situations; this can lead to changes in the child’s neurobiological system, which may later become a source of psychopathology.