Horizontal stratification in access to Danish university programmes

This paper examines the relationship between social background, choice of university programme and academic culture among Danish university students. Statistically and sociologically, university students are often treated as a homogeneous group, but the ever-increasing number of students in higher education demands a closer examination of the hidden heterogeneity in the students’ social origin and educational strategies. Using a mixed-method approach (register data and ethnographic observations and interviews) the paper focuses on the students’ class origins and on different cultural practices in three Danish university programmes. It is shown that the Danish university field is characterized by a significant variation in social selectivity from programme to programme, and it is argued that these different social profiles correspond with distinctively different cultural practices in the programmes. Correspondingly, the students have distinctively different strategies towards education and future work life.

Infectious diseases are diseases that causing by organisms, bacterias virus fungi or parasites. These organisms can spread from person to person either direct or indirect. Once organisms live in our bodies then destroyed the normal processes causing signs and symptoms that depend on the type of organisms. Good hygiene behavior is one of the important means to reducing transmitted diseases. To promote knowledge, attitude, hygiene practices among high school students, especially hand hygiene are significantly prevent the spread of infectious disease not only oneself but also classmates. Objective: To assess knowledge, attitude, and hygienic behavior and to study factors associated with hygienic behavior. Study Methods: A cross sectional survey research that studied a group of high school students. An online survey was developed in a google form and distributed to grade 10-12 students of a private high school in Chiangmai, Thailand, during April-May 2022. Descriptive statistics frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation, were used to analyze participants characteristics. Persons correlation coefficient was used to study association among variables. Results: A total of 381 students participate in this study. Most participants were female (n=199, 62.6%). Most of them studied in grade 11 (n=187, 58.8%). Majority of participants parents worked in the health science field (n=79,24.8%). Most participants reported a good level of hygiene-related knowledge (M=9.15, SD=1.70), Attitude toward hygiene(M=49.52, SD=1.57), and hygiene practice (M=49.00, SD=2.72). Male participants had attitudes toward hygiene and hygiene practice higher than females but had scores of hygiene knowledge less than females. Grade 10 students showed the highest scores of knowledge about hygiene(M=8.46, SD=2.57), attitudes toward hygiene(M=49.77, SD=1.02), and hygiene practice(M=49.51, SD=1.57). Participants whose parents worked as a teacher earned the highest scores in both hygiene knowledge (M=9.55, SD=0.60) and hygiene practice (M=49.68, SD=1.04). Conclusion: This study showed that almost all volunteers have a high excellence knowledge about hygiene. Good attitude toward hygiene. Excellent hygiene practices . Factors that affect students hygiene are attitude toward hygiene and hygiene practices. To encourage education about hygiene, attitude toward hygiene, and hygiene practices through social media, online, and website. Keyword: hygiene behavior, adolescent, knowledge Introduction Infectious diseases are illnesses that are caused by organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites1. They can spread from one person to another either directly (via skin contact with bodys fluid, bodys secretion, or droplets in the air though coughing and sneezing) or indirectly ( via contaminated food or water), including insects, animals, or the environment (table top, door knob, or faucet handle) to person2. Organisms that cause disease are called pathogens3.When pathogens enter our bodies then destroy the normal process of our bodies and/ or stimulate immune systems, reaction of tissue4. The defense responses depend on the organisms, often including fever, fatigue,inflammation, and other systemic or local symptoms5. Hygiene is the series of practices performed to preserve health. Hygiene behavior is the process to control transmission of infectious disease to the public, including individual communities. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) “ Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases”.personal hygiene refers to maintaining cleanliness of ones body and clothing to preserve health and well-being6. To promote personal hygiene might be the single cost- effective way to reduce the global burden of infectious diseases like that for COVID-19, Avian influenza, ( aerosol route) Cholera (oral route), etc. Stimulation for personal hygienic practice reduces personal infection, healing process, recovery time, good health,and wellbeing. Good personal hygiene practices are the most effective way to protect contaminated pathogens7. Hand hygiene,hand washing with soap, water, or hand sanitizer especially before eating, feeding, after toilet are the cessation of fecal- oral route transmitted diseases, example diarrhea, food poisoning8. Hand washing after coughing and sneezing reduces pathogens in aerosol droplets before catching surroundings things to quit the air - borne respiratory infection,for example cold , flu, moreover regularly hand washing when contact outside body is important for health hygiene practices. So hand hygiene is the major key in preventing the spreading of infectious disease in daily life. Body hygiene,showering or bathing regularly usually twice a day , but during an outbreak of infectious disease showering and changing clean clothes after going outside to reduce pathogens that contaminated clothes are necessary9. High school students, teenagers, or teens 15-19 years old. Inadequate knowledge, lack of attitude toward hygiene, without routine hygiene practices leading to transmitted disease not only oneself but also classmates. Motivation for good personal hygiene practices are important to prevention of transmitted disease10. Teens might learn how to care for their body health and avoid high risk behaviors in contact with pathogens. Many high schools have high personnel density and close contact so easily causing outbreak of transmitted diseases especially respiratory disease and gastrointestinal diseases .Social distancing, reducing gatherings places, strict hand sanitizer, cover mask, well cooked food, and healthy food. These are important factors to get healthy and prevent transmitted disease11. The clever new technology, the change of teens health behavior . Furthermore some teens live in a dormitory far from family combined with imitative behavior getting from social media surrounding persons. the urgent health problem in teens are sexual transmitted diseases including unwanted pregnancy12. Unhealthy, or contaminated food that brought from street causing diarrhea. Objective of the study To assess knowledge, attitude, and hygienic behavior To study factors associated with hygienic behavior Methods Participants and procedure This was a cross-sectional observational study. An online questionnaire was purposely developed and made available through Google From between 13 April 2022 and 14 May 2022. All students who were eligible were invited to participate in the study. The invitation was sent to social media groups of all classes. The students have access to their classes social media groups, so they all receive an invitation. In this invitation, information about the objectives of the study as well as the ethical guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity in the data collected as stated in the informed consent were explained. Participation was completely free and voluntary, and no personal data were collected from any participant. Of the 318 students, a total of 1,342 students participated in the study (response rate: 24%). Instrument The questionnaire was developed based on a literature review including Hygiene knowledge ,infection prevention and control knowledge which reviewed from Ministry of Public Health related studies on hygiene practice among high school students. A preliminary version of the instrument was reviewed by students to validate its content. A pretest was then performed with a small sample of students to test for comprehension and difficulty. All the questions remained without modifications. The psychometric characteristics of the questionnaire were tested, as described in the statistical analysis subsection. The final version of the questionnaire contained 33 questions 3 about sociodemographic date ( gender, education level and parents occupation) and 30 items divided into 3 sections First Independent Variable is knowledge about hygiene. This scale consisted of 10 statements related to hygiene. The participants were asked to choose the correct answer from multiple choices of 3. One point was assigned to each correct answer, while providing an incorrect answer received zero points. The sum of all items was made hence higher scores corresponded to a higher level of knowledge. Second Independent variable is attitude toward hygiene. This scale was composed of items, and response categories consisted of a five-point likert scale (from 1-strongly disagree, to 5 agree) with the highest score corresponding to more positive attitudes toward preventive behaviors.Some items on the scale were inverted for the analysis. A sum of all the items was made to obtain a score. The “Attitude toward hygiene” factor consisted of 10 items and varied from 1 to 5 and the higher values corresponded to a more positive attitude toward hygiene. Dependent variable is hygiene behavior. This scale referred to the number of preventive behaviors adoption and included 10 items. The data analysis reports 5 items. Each item was answered using a five-point scale (From 1-Never to 5-Always), with one point assigned to each behavior that was always practiced. The number of behaviors practiced was added up. A high score on this scale indicated good preventive behaviors, ranging from 12 to 60. Statistical analysis The analysis was performed using SPSS for windows, version 26. To analyze psychometric characteristics of the scales, an exploratory factor analysis, using principal component analysis with varimax rotation, was carried out. Reliability was analyzed through the calculation of item-total correlation coefficients and Cronbachs alpha (α ) for the scales of the questionnaire. The descriptive analysis were presented in absolute (n) and relative (%) frequencies, mean (M) and standard deviations (SD). To assess the differences between the outcome variables (Knowledge, attitudes and hygiene practice) and the sociodemographic characteristics, considering the sample size, independent t-test and the ANOVA were used as appropriate. The correlations between the outcomes of the study were calculated by Pearsons correlation. Lastly, a generalized linear model was calculated to determine the predictive variables of the preventive behaviors. Exp (β) and the respective 95% confidence intervals (95% IC) were presented. Statistical significance was defined as p < 0.05. Ethical Approval. Ethical approval was obtained from the study sites prior to data collection, and consent was assumed as completing the survey questions. Participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any point or choose not to answer any question. Participants confidentiality was maintained as no identifying information was collected and findings will be disseminated only in aggregate. Ethical Considerations This research uses an anonymous data collection method to collect data from grade 10-12 Students of private school in Chiang Mai, Thailand, by using Google form. The invitation was sent to the classroom social media group In these invitations, information about the studys objectives and the ethical guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity in the data collected as stated in the informed consent was explained. Participation was completely free and voluntary, and no personal data were collected from any participant. Result This study comprised a total of 318 students. The sociodemographic characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. Most students were female (n=199, 62.6%), 187 (58.8%) of the students studied in grade 11. 70 (22%) of the students studied in grade12. The rest studied in grade10 and above (n=61, 19.2%). Most students parents occupation were Medical / Nurse / Pharmacy / Dentist / Veterinary / Medical Technician (n=79, 24.8%) followed by Business / Trading of parents occupations group (n=74, 23.3%) and Executives / Company employees / Civil servants / State enterprises parents occupations group (n=71, 22.3% ) respectively. Regarding knowledge about hygiene, students revealed good knowledge about hygiene, correctly answering mean of 9.15 (SD=1.70) questions in a total of 10. Female students showed higher knowledge scores (M=9.40, SD=1.03) than male students (M=8.74, SD=2.04). Education level group of grade11 showed the highest hygiene related knowledge score of 9.41 (SD=1.29). Students whose parents occupation was teacher showed the highest hygiene related knowledge score of 9.55 (SD=0.60). Students showed a good level of attitude toward hygiene with an average score of 49.52 from 50 full scores. Male students showed a higher attitude toward hygiene score (M=49.77, SD=0.98) than female students (M=49.37, SD=1.82). Education level group of grade10 showed the highest attitude toward hygiene score of 49.77(SD=1.02). Students who parents occupation were Medical / Nurse / Pharmacy / Dentist / Veterinary / Medical Technician showed the highest attitude toward hygiene score of 49.76 (SD=1.17) Students showed a good level of hygiene practice with the average score of 49.00 from 50 full scores. Male students showed higher hygiene practice scores (M=49.71, SD=1.40) than female students (M=48.58, SD=1.39). Education level group of grade10 showed the highest hygiene practice score of 49.51(SD=1.57). Students whose parents occupation was teacher showed the highest hygiene practice score of 49.68 (SD=1.04). Table 1. Differences in outcomes according to the sociodemographic characteristics of participants (N = 318) Sociodemographic characteristics N (%) Knowledge about hygiene (Range 0-10) M (SD) Attitude toward hygiene (Range 10-50) M (SD) Hygiene practice (Range 12-60) M (SD) Gender Male 119 (37.4) 8.74 (2.40) 49.77 (0.98) 49.71 (1.40) Female 199 (62.6) 9.40 (1.03) 49.37 (1.82) 48.58 (3.19) Education Level Grade 10 61 (19.2) 8.46 (2.57) 49.77 (1.02) 49.51 (1.57) Grade 11 187 (58.8) 9.41 (1.29) 49.62 (1.62) 49.25 (2.65) Grade 12 70 (22) 9.07 (1.58) 49.04 (1.73) 47.90 (3.35) Parents Occupation Medical / Nurse / Pharmacy / Dentist / Veterinary / Medical Technician 79 (24.8) 8.32 (2.75) 49.76 (1.17) 49.34 (2.27) Teacher 22 (6.9) 9.55 (0.60) 49.73 (0.88) 49.68 (1.04) Business / Trading 74 (23.3) 9.46 (0.89) 49.49 (2.03) 49.23 (2.47) Executives / Company employees / Civil servants / State enterprises 71 (22.3) 9.30 (1.43) 49.59 (1.04) 48.82 (2.67) Freelance 37 (11.6) 9.46 (0.90) 48.65 (2.47) 47.70 (4.50) others 35 (11) 9.54 (0.74) 49.71 (0.86) 49.06 (2.14) Total 318 (100) 9.15 (1.70) 49.52 (1.57) 49.00 (2.72) The analysis of the correlations between the outcomes of the study - knowledge, attitudes and hygiene practice- revealed the existence of positive and statistically significant correlations between attitude toward hygiene practice (r=.663, p<0.01). Table 2. Pearsons correlation coefficient between the study outcomes Variables Knowledge about hygiene Attitude toward hygiene Hygiene practice Knowledge about hygiene 1 Attitude toward hygiene .017 1 Hygiene practice .018 .663** 1 **Correlation is Significant at the 0.01 *Correlation is Significant at the 0.05 Discussion This study focused on assessing hygiene knowledge, attitude toward hygiene, and hygiene practice among high school students. A total of 381 students participate in this study. Most participants were female (n=199, 62.6%). Most of them studied in grade 11 (n=187, 58.8%). Majority of participants parents worked in the health science field (n=79,24.8%). Most participants reported a good level of hygiene-related knowledge (M=9.15, SD=1.70), Attitude toward hygiene(M=49.52, SD=1.57), and hygiene practice (M=49.00, SD=2.72). Male participants had attitudes toward hygiene and hygiene practice higher than females but had scores of hygiene knowledge less than females. Grade 10 students showed the highest scores of knowledge about hygiene(M=8.46, SD=2.57), attitudes toward hygiene(M=49.77, SD=1.02), and hygiene practice(M=49.51, SD=1.57). Participants whose parents worked as a teacher earned the highest scores in both hygiene knowledge (M=9.55, SD=0.60) and hygiene practice (M=49.68, SD=1.04). Female participants showed a higher level of hygiene knowledge than male participants while male participants had a higher score of attitude toward hygiene and hygiene practice than females. This may be because male participants have started following both hygiene and beauty trends. This may be because male participants have started following both hygiene and beauty trends. This may be because over the last decade, male participants have started following both hygiene and beauty trends13.This study was consistent with the study of SAUDI nursing students showed that male participants had higher score of hygiene practices than female participants, but lest attitude toward hygiene14.Grade 10 students reported the highest score of hygiene knowledge, hygiene attitude and hygiene practice among participants from other classes. This may be because of grade 10 students, the younger participants had more docile than grade 11 and grade 12, . It was not consistent with the study among Koreas general populations showed that the older age groups showed better than the younger age groups.15. Our results contrasted to Mohammed ALBashtawys study that the higher class level students had the higher hygiene scores16. Participants whose parents worked as a teacher reported the highest score of hygiene knowledge, hygiene attitude and hygiene practice amongst participants whose parents were from other occupation fields. There was a positive and statistically significant correlation between Hygiene Attitude and Hygiene practice. Therefore improving hygiene practice among high school students could be done by strengthening attitudes toward hygiene through various means of effective communication that are suitable for this group17.These study results were different from Stephen T Odonkor and et al.s study that participants whose parents worked in the science field showed the highest level of hygiene knowledge among others parents occupations18. Limitation This studys questions are about general knowledge not specific to high school students. Even when answering the online questionnaire some students may search from the internet. Moreover the data collected during COVID-19 pandemic, all participants working from home, study online may not be aware of the risk of infection. Conclusions This study showed that almost all volunteers have a high excellence knowledge about hygiene. Good attitude toward hygiene. Excellent hygiene practices . Factors that affect students hygiene are attitude toward hygiene and hygiene practices. To encourage education about hygiene, attitude toward hygiene, and hygiene practices through social media, online, and website.

This article explores the influence of social origin on overeducation across various fields of study. With the expansion of higher education most advantaged classes seek qualitative and quantitative advantages to differentiate themselves from other graduates. Although credentials are direct signals of productivity they can also be viewed by employers as indirect signals of non-cognitive skills, which can be acquired through family socialization. These credentials may explain differences in overeducation among graduates of different fields of study and social origin. Parental educational background and occupation are relevant characteristics from which individuals gain useful skills and information to avoid overeducation in the labour market. Using data from the Italian Graduates Employment Survey (ISTAT in Indagine Statistica sull’Inserimento Professionale dei Laureati. Istituto nazionale di statistica, Rome, 2007) this article provides evidence that graduates from fields of study that do not lead to a specific occupation (e.g. Humanities, Political and Social Sciences) decrease their risk of overeducation when their fathers belong to the professional class, but it has no influence on graduates from occupationally focused fields of study (e.g. Engineering and Medicine). These results are consistent even after controlling for the possible use of social networks when looking for a job.

Despite being a target of various policy interventions across developed countries, disparities in higher education participation among students from different socio-economic backgrounds remain persistent. While previous literature has outlined the processes through which parental resources can shape students’ educational decisions and pathways, the evidence remains scarce on how the effects of social origin on the participation in higher education vary along the academic performance distribution. Utilising multilevel models applied to large-scale linked administrative and survey data from Australia, this study explores how the participation in higher education varies along the students’ performance distribution by their social origins. Our results show that the effects of social origins on university participation are most pronounced in the middle of the academic performance distribution and taper off towards either end. Consideration is also given to exploring different ways to capture socio-economic status (SES) (i.e. through parental education and occupation) as an indicator of social origins. The results show that parental education serves as a better predictor of students’ university participation than does parental occupation. The paper discusses the implications of these findings for educational policies aimed at increasing university participation among individuals from low-SES backgrounds.

Parental poverty and occupation as risk factors for pediatric sleep-disordered breathing

Access to the labor market is influenced by various socio-economic factors, including social class and education. In Italy, these elements play a crucial role in determining employment opportunities and career trajectories. This study aims to analyze how social origin influences transition to the first job across different birth cohorts, gender groups, and macro-region of residence while also assessing the mediating role of education. Using Event History Analysis, we estimate labor market entry timing via survival models and discrete-time logistic regression, accounting for social background effects. We classify social origin using the European Socio-economic Classification scale based on the parental occupation. The analysis, conducted separately by gender, controls for birth cohort, education, parenthood, and area of residence. Also, we employ the KHB decomposition, which enables us to quantify the extent to which education mediates the influence of social background on labor market entry. Individuals from lower social backgrounds enter the labor market earlier, while those from higher-status families tend to delay entry, likely due to extended education and greater financial support. Educational attainment mediates the relationship between social origin and labor market entry, as individuals from higher-status backgrounds tend to delay entry due to prolonged education. However, education does not fully eliminate class-based disparities-controlling for educational attainment amplifies rather than erases the effect of social origin, indicating that other mechanisms still play a role. Social class disparities in labor market entry remain largely stable across cohorts, with only minimal convergence among men and no significant change among women. For men, class effects remain stable across macro-regions, while for women they are stronger in northern Italy. Our findings confirm that social origin remains a significant determinant of labor market entry in Italy, despite changes in education and labor market structures over time. While increased access to education has contributed to greater opportunities, it has not entirely eliminated class-based disparities in employment transitions.

This study investigates how organizational features of university and workplace institutions shape coherence between ideas about the knowledge required for professional education across the curriculum, in two “semi-professions”—teaching and social work. While coherence is imperative for program design in professional education frameworks that include theoretical and practicum components, it is often found to be challenging, especially in occupational fields where connections between knowledge and practice are historically weak and a demarcated knowledge base for professional preparation is missing. Based on a triangulation of qualitative research methods conducted in the working contexts of 56 professional educators in Israel, this study reveals more coherent curricula in social work education than in teacher education and exposes how such divergence is determined by the state of alignment between organizations of practice and research activities in workplace and university institutions. Findings show that whereas the organization of research activities determines faculty domains of expertise and involvement in the program and subsequently, the knowledge represented in theoretical courses, the organization of professional practice, as imposed by core working conditions, requires activating particular domains of professional knowledge in practicum settings. By underscoring institutional influences on curricular coherence in professional education, the study contributes to the international discussion about the role of academic knowledge in professional training and highlights how organizational conditions in both professional and higher education settings create affordances and limitations for professional education curricula.

This Briefing Note uses linked administrative data to investigate gaps in access to postgraduate degrees. The numbers of students progressing to postgraduate study are increasing rapidly, such qualifications could therefore be an important driver of differences in early career opportunities. Yet while there has been significant attention focussed on access to undergraduate study in the UK, there has been very little equivalent work on postgraduate access. Investigating this topic is especially important given the environment of unregulated fees and &ndash; until recently &ndash; a lack of availability of student loans. We investigate access to postgraduate study &ndash; including masters, PhDs and PGCEs &ndash; by age 30 for those who left secondary school in the mid-2000s. We outline our key findings below: Key findings There are very large gaps in access to postgraduate degrees. Of those coming from the most advantaged quintile of state-educated students in England, around 18% proceeded onto postgraduate study, while the equivalent share for the privately educated is 27%. For the poorest quintile of state students, just 4% proceed to any postgraduate study. Almost all of the gaps can be explained by attainment in school. While there are large raw gaps in participation, these differences are roughly halved once controls for Key Stage 2 (age 11) attainment are included. Once controls for Key Stage 4 (GCSE) attainment are included the 14ppts raw gap becomes just 1ppts. Key Stage 5 (A level) controls reduce this yet further. Taking university attainment into account means poorer students are actually marginally more likely to progress onto postgraduate study. Conditional on Key Stage 2, 4 and 5 scores as well as university degree classifications, subject and institution, poorer students are ever so slightly more likely to progress onto postgraduate study. While statistically significant, this negative gap is extremely small. Conditional on attainment poorer students are more likely to do a PGCE. Although the overall gaps in PGCE participation are relatively small, poorer students are significantly more likely to progress to PGCE qualifications conditional on age 18 attainment, with this gap growing once we include all attainment up to the end of university. The results are remarkably robust to different specifications. We explore gaps between private and state students, the gaps between the richest students and middle-income students and also gaps in access to the highest-returning masters courses, drawing on estimates from our new paper on the returns to different postgraduate degrees (Britton et al, 2020). We furthermore explore gaps in participation at age 25 for a cohort born 5 years later. In all cases we find that the gaps in participation are extremely small, zero, or even marginally negative, once prior attainment is taken into account. Future work should consider more recent cohorts and the impact of postgraduate loans. This work is &ndash; as far as we are aware &ndash; the first to document access gaps for postgraduate study and the role of prior attainment in explaining these gaps. We show this for cohorts who mostly have taken postgraduate degrees in the late 2000s and early 2010s. Important changes to postgraduate education which have taken place since then &ndash; notably the introduction of postgraduate loans &ndash; may have affected participation for more recent cohorts.

Flow in alluvial channels is controlled by many variables, most of which are interdependent and adjust mutually. Bed form, for example, adjusts in response to changes in depth and slope, to changes in diameter, density, and shape of particles, and to changes in viscosity and density of the sediment-water mixture. Because stratification is the product of migrating bed forms, it too is complexly related to many variables. The concept of flow regime allows a grouping of the combined effects of these variables. Five distinct stratification types were recognized in shallow trenches in the Rio Grande bed near El Paso, Texas. Four of these stratification types are products of specific bed forms observed in this section of the river during the preceding irrigation season, when discharge, velocity, depth, channel width, temperature, and sediment concentration had been measured and bed forms mapped at the trench areas. The five stratification types that can be related in a general way to flow phenomena follow. (1) Large-scale trough cross-stratification (sets 0.2–2 feet thick), volumetrically the most important sedimentary structure, forms by dune migration in the upper part of lower-flow regime where water depths exceed one foot. (2) Small-scale trough cross-stratification (sets 0.1 foot thick) commonly veneers the river bed and forms by ripple migration in the lower part of the lowerflow regime. (3) Tabular cross-stratification (sets 0.2–2 feet thick) forms by migration of bars or of terrace-like features in the lower-flow regime. (4) Horizontal stratification is the product of plane-bed transport achieved in the upper-flow regime, and is preserved in thin sheetlike sets on bar surfaces. (5) Parallel stratification, represented in a thin silt and clay layer mantling the forms on the emerged river bed, is deposited by settling of suspended material as flow slackens. Stratification is potentially one of the most useful indicators of flow environment. However, stratification is the product of many complexly interrelated variables, some of which leave no discrete geologic record. Stratigraphers have traditionally interpreted stratification in terms of velocity depth, and (or) slope. Such interpretations are incomplete considerations of the problem and are commonly incorrect. It is more correct and useful to state environment simply in terms of flow regime, the integrated resultant of all variables.

Research on stratification and mobility has consistently shown that in the UK there is a direct impact of social origin on occupational destination net of educational attainment even for degree‐holders. However, only a few studies applied a longitudinal and dynamic perspective on how intergenerational mobility shapes graduates’ working careers. Using multilevel growth curve modelling and data from the 1970 British cohort study (BCS70), we contribute to this research by looking at the emergence of social inequalities during the first ten years since labour market entry. We further distinguish between graduates of different fields of study as we expect social disparities to develop differently due to differences in initial occupational placement and upward mobility processes. We find that parental class does not affect occupational prestige over and above prior achievement. Separate analyses by the field of study show that initial differences in occupational prestige and career progression do not differ between graduates from different classes of origin in STEM fields, and arts and humanities. It is only in the social sciences that working‐class graduates start with lower occupational prestige but soon catch up with their peers from higher classes. Overall, our results indicate no direct effect of social origin on occupational attainment for degree‐holders once we broaden our focus to a dynamic life course perspective.

Accessibility gaps are inherent properties of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) sun-synchronous satellite missions. Long accessibility gaps in satellite missions imply strict in-orbit autonomy requirement, met by expensive solutions. Thus, methods to shorten accessibility gaps in satellite missions are appreciated by space mission designers. For that purpose, in this paper, ground segment site location is employed as a mechanism to reduce the longest accessibility gaps in LEO sun-synchronous missions. For a given repeatability cycle, it is shown that longitude of the ground segment does not affect the access gaps. Simulation results show that increasing the latitude of ground segment reduces the longest accessibility gaps, especially in extreme latitudes near Polar Regions. To avoid polar ground segments due to their practical difficulties, mission architectures with two co-high-latitude ground segments are proposed. Selection of longitude distance between the two co- high-latitude ground segments is discussed to further reduce the longest accessibility gap in LEO sun-synchronous missions. To show the feasibility of the proposed approach, simulation results are included for illustration.

<b>Background</b>: Despite evidence that divorce has become more prevalent among weaker socioeconomic groups, knowledge about the stratification aspects of divorce in Israel is lacking. Moreover, although scholarly debate recognizes the importance of stratificational positions with respect to divorce, less attention has been given to the interactions between them. <b>Objective</b>: Our aim is to examine the relationship between social inequality and divorce, focusing on how household income, education, employment stability, relative earnings, and the intersection between them affect the risk of divorce in Israel. <b>Methods</b>: The data is derived from combined census files for 1995-2008, annual administrative employment records from the National Insurance Institute and the Tax Authority, and data from the Civil Registry of Divorce. We used a series of discrete-time event-history analysis models for marital dissolution. <b>Results</b>: Couples in lower socioeconomic positions had a higher risk of divorce in Israel. Higher education in general, and homogamy in terms of higher education (both spouses have degrees) in particular, decreased the risk of divorce. The wife's relative earnings had a differential effect on the likelihood of divorce, depending on household income: a wife who outearned her husband increased the log odds of divorce more in the upper tertiles than in the lower tertile. <b>Conclusions</b>: Our study shows that divorce indeed has a stratified pattern and that weaker socioeconomic groups experience the highest levels of divorce. Gender inequality within couples intersects with the household's economic and educational resources.

The purpose of this chapter is to describe some of the epidemiological activities at the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the field of birth defects and parental occupation. A decade ago little evidence about hazard or safety was available and concerns about possible associations between occupational exposures and birth defects seemed relatively new. Perhaps the dearth of evidence stemmed from the recent trend of women moving into fields of employment that had been traditionally the exclusive preserves of men, fields which were perceived as being potentially inimical to a female’s reproductive function. Further, we are still more or less at the same point, although many investigations have been started in the past few years in the USA; perhaps much evidence will be available in the relatively near future. At CDC a major study will soon be completed which has as its primary purpose the assessment of the birth defects risks of a very special type of occupational setting: the Vietnam war. It is ironic that the trend to female employment in traditionally male occupations has also generated an interest in the possibility of male-mediated reproductive problems deriving from those occupational exposures.

Based on in-depth interviews with doctoral students across different types of English higher education institutions, this study explores existing and perceived barriers to entering doctoral study. Previous research in widening participation and higher education access has neglected this level. Although the PhD is the highest educational qualification, there appear to be quite distinct, classed pathways in access to and through the doctorate corresponding to patterns of institutional stratification. PhD students do not comprise a homogeneous elite; rather, we detect at least three ideal-typical pathways to the doctorate. These pathways illustrate disparities among the community of PhD students, both between and within universities. Marked differences in funding, facilities and support carry consequences for individual chances of completion and the doctoral experience. Social and institutional stratification appear to work hand-in-hand in determining one’s chances for achieving the ‘promise’ of the PhD, such as secure university employment and similar highly skilled work.

This study investigates the links between race, school choice and educational stratification in South Africa. It focuses on racial differences in families’ efforts to take advantage of choice by transferring to opportunity (i.e., transferring to a school perceived to offer students better access to educational opportunity than their current school) and explores the implications of those transfers for emerging patterns of racial stratification in access to high quality schools. Findings reveal significant racial variation in transfers to opportunity and suggest a complex link between race and the ways in which historically disadvantaged groups have engaged with the post-apartheid educational opportunity structure.