Holding Platforms Liable

We study an e-commerce platform's incentives to delist IP-infringing products and the effects of introducing a liability regime that induces the platform to increase its screening intensity. We identify conditions under which platform liability is socially desirable (respectively, undesirable) by analyzing its intended and unintended effects on the innovation incentives of brand owners. We show that making the platform liable for the presence of IP-infringing products can lead to a reduction (instead of an increase) in brand owners' innovation if the platform responds to more screening by raising its commission rate. We then consider various extensions that allow us to identify additional forces that strengthen (respectively, weaken) the social desirability of liability. We conclude by presenting some implications for policymakers.

PurposeIdentifying negative attitudes toward mental illness among students on nursing undergraduate degrees can help to design teaching strategies able to reduce the stigma attached to this condition. This study aims to assess attitudes toward mental health and intentions regarding future behavior in university nursing students initiating their training in the treatment of mental health problems (MHPs).Design/methodology/approachA descriptive, observational and cross-sectional study was designed. A sample of 162 nursing students completed scales to assess their attitudes toward mental health, stigma, predicted behavior and social desirability. Simple and a multiple linear regression was performed adjusted for the social desirability scale result.FindingsNursing students with previous experience of MHPs presented positive attitudes and behavioral intentions toward mental illness. Those who had no such experience before their training in mental health nursing presented certain stigmatizing attitudes. Attitudes toward MHPs may be affected by stigma and also by social desirability bias. The training in mental health care given to nursing students should aim to reduce its influence to help them carry out their future duties efficiently and compassionately.Originality/valueThis study demonstrates the relevance of university teaching plans, which should place special emphasis on promoting knowledge and developing skills and attitudes in nursing students undergoing training in mental health care to ensure optimal levels of performance in their future careers.

The internal psychometric properties and the criterion-related validity of a popular measure for assessing a person's optimal stimulation level (OSL), the 32-item Arousal Seeking Tendency Scale, version II (AST-I1), were investigated. Using data from samples of undergraduate business students (n = 519) and undergraduate students in hotel, restaurant, and institutional management (n = 320), it was found that AST-II had a single-factor structure with adequate internal psychometric properties and high reliability. Criterion-related validity was assessed with data from the undergraduate business students and was found to be high. Correlations with other measures of OSL, measures of related constructs, and consequences of OSL were all significant and were mostly above .40, whereas the responses to the AST-II items did not appear to be contaminated by social desirability bias. Two reduced versions of the scale exhibited improved internal properties but lower criterion-related validity.

To assess the influence of the water fluoride level on periodontal status, by determining the periodontal health status of subjects residing in low, optimum and high fluoride areas. A cross sectional survey was carried out on 967 adults aged 35-44 years old, from the Udaipur district of India. A stratified cluster random sampling technique was implemented in order to collect a representative sample from low (<0.6 ppm), optimum (0.6 - 1.2 ppm) and high fluoride (>3 ppm) areas, based on the fluoride concentration in drinking water. Periodontal status was assessed in accordance to WHO criteria. The Chi-square test was used to compare proportions, and logistic regression analysis was used to determine the contribution of water fluoride levels to periodontal disease. Those residing in areas of low fluoride levels were more likely to present periodontal pockets than those living in high fluoride areas 1.3 (95 % CI 1.11+/-1.86). Subjects living in areas of low fluoride were noted to have a higher risk of periodontal attachment loss of more than 8mm (OR = 1.94, 95% CI 1.67+/-3.85). The risk for presence of periodontal pockets and attachment loss of more than 8mm increased by 1.17 (95 % CI 1.02+/-1.69) and 1.59 (95 % CI 1.27+/-3.29) respectively for those residing in areas of optimum fluoride levels. Deep periodontal pockets were more prevalent (6.3%) among those residing in areas of low fluoride, followed by optimum (5.2%) and high (3.1%). As the fluoride concentrations increased, the prevalence of shallow and deep periodontal pockets decreased. The severity of periodontal disease was significantly associated with fluoride levels, with cases of loss of attachment gradually decreasing when moving from low fluoride areas to high fluoride areas. It appears that longitudinal studies need to be conducted in order to ascertain the benefits; and microbiological analysis of dental plaque and periodontium should be carried out in order to confirm the effects of fluoride on periodontal conditions.

This paper examines the positions of Coase and Pigou in regard to the problem of external effects (externalities). Assessing their two most important works, it appears that Coase has a more relevant preference for an evaluation of total efficiency, while Pigou, with some exceptions, is convinced that it is almost always socially desirable to reach marginal efficiency through taxes or liability. It is interesting that the economist of Chicago, who has elaborated on the renowned theorem, thinks that is not desirable to reach efficiency at the margin every time, and that it is often preferable to evaluate the total, which indicates the solution that is more welfare enhancing. A certain confusion in the work of Coase is noticeable. On one hand he criticizes Pigou for statements regarding the social desirability of relocating some industries away from the towns, and on the other hand, he suggests solutions that give an absolute right for an activity that is incompatible with the activity of another subject. In this way he eliminates the possibility of having a solution that is in accordance with Coase’s idea, which stresses that any external effect is reciprocal: The adjective “reciprocal” means that a damage to Y is the consequence of limiting the activity of Y in order to allow the activity of X, and the opposite is also true: A benefit for Y causes a damage to X. Beyond this criticism, Coase’s arguments against Pigou’s tools are represented by the famous theorem, according to which a public intervention is not necessary in order to obtain efficiency when transaction costs are low. However, the theorem is not an idea that can be used to say that Pigou’s methods are useless when transaction costs are high. Indeed, when transaction costs are high, efficiency cannot be reached through negotiations. Coase, nonetheless, rejects Pigou’s tools for every situation. Through a deep examination of the paragraphs of “The Problem of Social Costs,” it is understandable why Coase opposes Pigou’s tools. First of all, he considers that the remedy consisting in the compensation of the victim. To Pigou’s way of thinking, this is a strict liability rule. Coase states that the damage is caused by both parties, and, moreover, the amount of the damage depends on both parties. He understands that the compensation method described by Pigou can bring about moral hazards and, therefore, brings about new social costs.Since the article was written in 1960, Coase’s theory has been developed and has become a pillar of tort law and economics. Pigou proposed a tax as an alternative remedy for external effects, which does not bring about a behavior of moral hazard, because the victim bears the expected costs. However, Coase is diffident in regard to the tax. His idea was not developed by other scholars in the subsequent years. Coase understands that efficiency should require a tax on the victim, so that the victim considers the increase of the costs of precaution for the injurer due to creating the nuisance. In other words, Coase understands that the tax does not produce the socially optimal activity level of the parties if the costs of precaution of the other party are not considered as a component of the tax. Therefore, Coase‘s belief is that the tools of Pigou create so many problems as to make them inefficient.

Levels of somatic awareness in relation to angiographic findings

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a sudden, unexpected neurological event that can change an individual’s life course. Changes to self-identity or self-discrepancy between one’s pre-injury and post-injury selves is commonly reported. However, the mechanisms that underlie these subjectively experienced alterations after TBI are poorly understood. Comprised of four main studies, the broad objective of this thesis was to advance understanding of the impact of severe TBI on self-identity and the neurocognitive, psychological, and social/occupational factors associated with self-identity changes. Study 1 consists of a systematic review of research on the impact of TBI on self-identity and the associations between self-identity change and neurocognitive and psychosocial functioning. Searches of four databases revealed fifteen studies that quantitatively examined changes in self-identity after TBI in adults using measures of self-concept, personality, or self-discrepancy. Despite methodological differences, these studies consistently identified evidence of negative changes to self-concept. However, stability in self-concept and positive changes in personal attributes were also reported. Negative changes in self-concept were associated with greater emotional distress in three of the studies. Key areas for further investigation related to understanding how neurocognitive functioning, psychological characteristics, and occupational engagement contribute to self-identity changes after TBI. Guided by the findings of the systematic review, studies 2 to 4 used a validated measure of self-discrepancy (Head Injury Semantic Differential Scale [HISD] III) to examine the relationship between self-discrepancy and neurocognitive functions (study 2), psychological characteristics (study 3), and social/occupational factors (study 4). The participants were 59 adults with severe TBI (72.9% male, M age = 36.50 years, SD= 12.54) recruited as part of a broader cognitive rehabilitation study. Participants were administered neuropsychological tests and questionnaires in the home. Study 2 aimed to examine associations between self-discrepancy and measures of attention, memory, executive function, and self-awareness (i.e., Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test, Zoo Map, Digit Span, Modified Stroop, Controlled Oral Word Association Test & Awareness Questionnaire). The results revealed that more negative self-discrepancy was significantly associated with better neurocognitive functions. Specifically, more negative self-discrepancy was associated with greater self-awareness and better performance on tests of immediate memory, working memory, and verbal fluency. Self-awareness was the only neurocognitive factor significantly and uniquely related to self-discrepancy, and was found to partially mediate the relationship between immediate memory and self-discrepancy. Overall, the findings highlighted that memory and self-awareness are central to updating self-identity after severe TBI. Study 3 aimed to examine the relationship between personality characteristics (optimism and defensiveness), cognitive appraisals (threat appraisals, rumination, reflection, and perceived coping resources) and self-discrepancy. These constructs were assessed using the Life Orientation Test, Marlow Crowne Social Desirability Scale – short form, Appraisal of Threat and Avoidance Questionnaire, Reflection and Rumination Questionnaire, Coping Resource Questionnaire and HISD-III. Correlation analyses revealed that higher levels of optimism, defensiveness, and perceived coping resources were significantly associated with more positive self-discrepancy, whereas higher threat appraisals and rumination were significantly associated with more negative self-discrepancy. After controlling for personality characteristics, cognitive appraisals significantly accounted for self-discrepancy. Rumination significantly mediated the relationship between optimism and self-discrepancy. Overall, these findings suggest that individuals with certain personality characteristics and associated cognitive appraisals are more likely to experience negative self-discrepancy after severe TBI. Study 4 examined the nature of occupational engagement after severe TBI, and the relationship between re-engagement in desired occupations, mood, psychosocial functioning and self-discrepancy. Participants with TBI completed the Occupational Gaps Questionnaire, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales–21 and HISD-III and their relatives completed the Sydney Psychosocial Reintegration Scale. The results revealed that greater occupational re-engagement gaps were related to higher levels of anxiety and poorer psychosocial functioning. A mediation analysis revealed that re-engagement gaps were indirectly related to self-discrepancy through an association with anxiety. These results suggest that anxiety related to gaps in occupational functioning may contribute to negative comparisons between pre-injury and post-injury self. Overall, this thesis advances understanding of changes to self-identity after TBI. Specifically, study 1 demonstrated that negative self-discrepancy is most commonly experienced and highlighted the need to further understand the role of neurocognitive and psychosocial factors. Studies 2 to 4 showed that individuals with better memory function, lower optimism, and greater occupational gaps (indirectly) are more likely to experience negative self-discrepancy. These associations were mediated by self-awareness, rumination, and anxiety symptoms (respectively), which represent potential targets for intervention to facilitate positive identity change after TBI. Collectively, the findings highlight the importance of integrated rehabilitation approaches that simultaneously address neurocognitive impairments, psychological adjustment, and activity re-engagement after severe TBI.

This article examines a model of strict liability with costly litigation and presents conditions under which (1) potential injurers take optimal precautions, (2) increasing the cost of litigation enhances precaution and social welfare, (3) the optimal level of liability exceeds the compensatory level, and (4) increasing the rate of settlement enhances social welfare. The results have implications for controversies surrounding fee shifting, optimal damage awards (e.g., punitive damages), and the social desirability of settlement. The most striking implication is that fee shifting in favor of prevailing plaintiffs is socially desirable in low‐transaction‐cost settings.

Abstract. Recently an increasing pocket depth was found to be related to an increasing probing force. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether or not a plateau value in pocket depth measurements exists and to study, with different probing forces, the location of the tip of the probe in relation to the periodontal fibers and the alveolar bone. Two groups of patients were selected for this study; in one group a number of teeth had to be extracted for periodontal reasons (the extraction group) and in the other a single periodontal surgical procedure was required (the surgery group). All patients received preliminary treatment consisting of plaque control and removal of subgingival deposits. At the time of the investigation the gingival condition was assessed by means of a new index, the Periodontal Pocket Bleeding Index (P.P.B.I.) The criteria were: 0 ‐ no bleeding of the pocket after probing with a force of 0.75N, and 1 ‐ bleeding of the pocket within 30 sec after probing with a force of 0.75N. After local anesthesia in the extraction group, reference marks parallel to the long axis of the experimental teeth were cut with a cylindrical diamond burr. By means of the pressure probe, pocket depth measurements were performed with increasing forces of 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 and 1.25N. After extraction and staining of the remnants of the periodontal fibers, the distance from the most coronal intact connective tissue fibers to the most apical point of the reference marks was measured. In the surgery group using the same pressure probe, interproximal measurements with increasing forces of 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 and 1.25N were made from the apical border of the restorations to the bottom of the pocket. The same measurement, this time to the crest of the alveolar bone, was repeated after a flap had been raised.Results with the P.P.B.I. showed that oral hygiene procedures resulted in a mean index of 0.36 in the surgery group and 0.43 in the extraction group. The results of the present study indicated that 1) using a probe of 0.63 mm diameter, the optimal force level for clinical pocket depth measurements is 0.75N, 2) a force of 0.75N is clinically well tolerated and meets with few objections from patients, 3) when a probing force of 0.75N is used the tip of the probe in both shallow and deep periodontal pockets is located at the most coronal intact connective tissue fibers, 4) a plateau value in pocket depth measurements is found when a probing force of 1.25N is employed, and 5) the mean width of the connective tissue attachment is approximately 1.9 mm.

The Kyoto Protocol’s project finance-based compliance mechanisms were devised to efficiently retool the global economy to be less greenhouse gas intensive and to facilitate sustainable development. By mitigating and reversing the accumulation of heat-trapping gasses in the atmosphere, these projects were to lower the frequency and severity of adverse climatic scenarios. While mitigating project finance activity has grown substantially since the Kyoto Protocol came into effect, it ultimately failed to reach the scale and environmental integrity needed to meet the recent precipitous increase in emissions of GHG. In response, there has been an urgent call for scaling-up investments in mitigating projects, while improving their environmental integrity. However, not only does structuring of mitigating projects involve traditional project financing risks, it is further limited by the uncertainties and hurdles of the newly created carbon markets and by dwindling financial resources in the wake of the financial crisis. Consequently, project sponsors and lenders could practically look only at the lowest hanging fruits, frustrating the urgent need to scale-up the investments in quality mitigating projects. However, while urgently needed projects are not being originated because they are too risky on a stand-alone basis, a significant portion of their risks is of idiosyncratic nature. Hence, a portfolio of weakly correlated mitigating projects could increase the spectrum of the financially feasible projects. Moreover, retaining only part of the financial exposure could increase that spectrum even further. Consequently, the aggregation and monetization advantages in securitization technology could potentially fund additional and better quality projects and contribute to the needed scaling-up of project origination. However, the viability and social desirability of securitization technology are highly questionable in the wake of the recent financial turmoil. While prior to the crisis securitization has been regarded as an agent of change, by facilitating major desired transformations, its contribution to the accumulation of toxic assets by “too big to fail” financial institutions evolved into unprecedented systemic risk and culminated in a financial debacle. This Article delves into this inherent tension between the need to employ the most powerful financial technologies to fund mitigating projects and the fear of fueling a “carbon bubble” and its associated systemic risks. It sheds light on the potential of securitization technology to bridge the needed investments in mitigating projects and the unrivalled deep pockets of the capital markets. It explores possible securitization structures to achieve this goal and discusses groundbreaking securitization transactions in this sphere. It then analyzes the viability of securitization technology in funding mitigating projects by assessing the applicability of key lessons from the recent financial meltdown. It suggests that evolving regulatory frameworks, both in the financial sector and in the carbon markets, could align the interests of structuring banks and investors and prevent reoccurrence of highly criticized practices and devolvement of their related risks. It concludes by arguing that although the private sector would ultimately structure and fund the bulk of the decarbonation process in the global economy, partnership with international financial institutions is of paramount importance, at least until the private sector recovers from the recent financial debacle and the carbon markets are more conducive for long term investments.

Uranium and nuclear power: The role of exploration information in framing public policy

Total joint replacement outcomes in patients with concomitant comorbidities: a glass half empty or half full?